^/
THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES
J . , The Right Reverend V. S. Azaeiah,
/f ?;" \ Bishop of Dornakal.
J. N. Farquhar, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.),
Already published.
The Heart of Buddhism. K. J. Saunders, M.A.
Asoka. J. M. Macphail, M.A., M.D.
Indian Painting. Principal Percy Brown, Calcutta.
Kanarese Literature. E. P. Rice, B.A.
The Samkhya System. A. Berriedale Keith, D.C.L.,
D.Litt.
Psalms of Maratha Saints. Nicol Macnicol, M.A., D.Litt.
A History of Hindi Literature. F. E. Keay, M.A., Jubbulpore.
Hymns of the Tamil ^aiva Saints. Francis Kingsbury,
B.A., and G. E. Phillips, M.A., Bangalore.
The Karma-Mimamsa. A. Berriedale Keith, D.C.L.,
D.Litt.
Subjects proposed and volumes under preparatioi.
SANSKRIT AND PALI LITERATURE.
Hymns from the Vedas. Prof. A. A. Macdonell, Oxford.
Anthology of Mahayana Literature. Prof. L. de la Vallee
Poussin, Ghent.
Selections from the Upanishads. F. J. Western, M.A., Delhi.
Scenes from the Ramayana.
Selections from the Mahabharata.
THE PHILOSOPHIES.
An Introduction to Hindu Philosophy. J. N. Farquhar and
John McKenzie, M.A., Bombay.
The Philosophy of the Upanishads.
Sank_ara's Vedanjia. A. K. Sharma, M.A., Patiala.
Ramanuja's Vedanta.
The Buddhist System.
FINE ART AND MUSIC.
Indian Architecture. R. L. Ewing, B.A., Madras.
Indian Sculpture.
The Minor Arts. Principal Percy Brown, Calcutta.
Indian Coins. C. J. Brown, M.A. (Oxon.), Lucknow.
BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT INDIANS.
Gautama Buddha. K. J. Saunders, M.A., Rangoon.
Ramanuja.
Akbar. F. V. Slack, M.A., Calcutta,
TulsiDas._
Rabindranath Tagore. E. J. Thompson, M.A., Bankura.
VERNACULAR LITERATURE.
The Kurral. H. A. Popley, B.A., Erode.
Hymns of the Alvars. J. S. M. Hooper, M.A., Madras.
Tulsl Das's Ramayana in Miniature. G. J. Dann, M.A.,
(Oxon.), Patna.
Hymns of Bengali Singers. E. J. Thompson, M.A., Bankura.
Sufi Hymns. Prof. R. Siraj dd Din, Lahore, and W. R.
Wilson, I.C.S., Dera Ghazi Khan.
GujaratI Hymns.
Kanarese Religious Lyrics.
HISTORIES OF VERNACULAR LITERATURE.
Bengali. C. S. Paterson, M.A., Calcutta.
Gujarat!. R. H. Boyd, M.A., Ahmadabad.
Marathi. Nicol Macnicol, M.A,, D.Litt,, Poona,
Urdu'. B. Ghoshal, M.A., Bhopal.
Tamil, Francis Kingsbury, B.A., Bangalore.
Telugu. P. Chenchiah, M.A., Madras, and Raja Bhujanga
Rao, Ellore.
Malayalam. T. K. Joseph, B.A., L.T,, Trivandrum,
Sinhalese.
NOTABLE INDIAN PEOPLES.
The Rajputs,
The Syrian Christians, K, C, Mammen Mapillai, Alleppey.
The Sikhs,
VARIOUS.
Modern Folk Tales, W, Norman Brown, M.A., Ph.D.,
Philadelphia.
Indian Village Government.
Poems by Indian Women. Mrs. N, Macnicol, Poona.
Indian Temple Legends. K. T, Paul, B,A., Calcutta,
Classical Sanskrit Literature,
Indian Astronomy and Chronology, Rao Bahadur L, D,
Svamikannu PlLt-AI,
EDITORIAL PREFACE
" Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are
true, whatsoever things are honourable, whatso-
ever things are just, whatsoever things are pure,
whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things
are of good report ; if there be any virtue, and
if there be any praise, think on these things."
No section of the population of India can afford to
neglect her ancient heritage. In her literature, philo-
sophy, art, and regulated life there is much that is
worthless, much also that is distinctly unhealthy ; yet
the treasures of knowledge, wisdom, and beauty which
they contain are too precious to be lost. Every citizen
of India needs to use them, if he is to be a cul-
tured modern Indian. This is as true of the Christian,
the Muslim, the Zoroastrian as of the Hindu. But,
while the heritage of India has been largely explored
by scholars, and the results of their toil are laid out for
us in their books, they cannot be said to be really
available for the ordinary man. The volumes are in
most cases expensive, and are often technical and
difficult. Hence this series of cheap books has been
planned by a group of Christian men, in order that
every educated Indian, whether rich or poor, may be
able to find his way into the treasures of India's past.
Many Europeans, both in India and elsewhere, will
doubtless be glad to use the series.
The utmost care is being taken by the General
Editors in selecting writers, and in passing manuscripts
for the press. To every book two tests are rigidly
applied : everything must be scholarly, and everything
must be sympathetic. The purpose is to bring the
best out of the ancient treasuries, so that it may be
known, enjoyed, and used.
f^am
^OK^i
mm.
KANAKESK STONE INSCRIPTION FROM
TALKAD, A.D. 726.
A'<nf HI flic Mysore Unii'ersity, Mysore.
THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES
A History of
Kanarese Literature
SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED
BY
EDWARD P. RICE, B.A.
ASSOCIATION PRESS
5, RUSSELL STREET, CALCUTTA
LONDON : OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
NEW YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNE.
BOMBAY. CALCUTTA AND MADRAS
1921
The Right of Translation is Reserved,
DEDICATED
BY KIND PERMISSION
TO
prAktana vimarsa vichakshana,
rao bahadur,
R. NARASIMHACHARYA, M.A., M.R.A.S.,
DIRECTOR OF ARCH^OLOGICAL RESEARCHES
IN MYSORE.
2005019
PRINTED AT
THE WESLEY AN MISSION PRESS,
MYSORE CITY
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
Fifty years ago verj^ few, even of the Kanarese
people themselves, had any idea of the range of
Kanarese literature, or of the relative age of the books
which constitute it. Our present knowledge is the
fruit of patient work on the part of a small number of
painstaking scholars, who have laboriously pieced
together the scattered information contained in inscrip-
tions on stone and copper and in the colophons and text
of palm-leaf manuscripts.
It is the practice of Kanarese poets to preface their
works, not only with invocations of the gods and of the
saints of old time, but also with the praise of former
poets. This practice is of very great historical value,
for it enables us to place the poets in their relative
chronological order. As in many instances the writers
received patronage from some reigning king, the
mention of the name of the royal patron enables us
further to give to many of the poets an approximately
correct date. In this way a list of Kanarese poets can
be drawn up in fairly correct order. The result shows
that Kanarese has a literature of vast extent, reaching
back till its beginnings are lost in the mists of time in
the early centuries of the Christian era.
The first modern scholars to give with any fulness
a connected view of Kanarese literature were the
German missionaries, Wiirth and Kittel. The latter in
1875 prefixed a valuable essay on Kanarese Literature
to his edition of Nagavarma's Prosody. Since then a
vast deal of additional information has been obtained,
more especially through the researches of Mr. Lewis
Rice, C.I.E., Director of Archaeological Researches in
Mysore, and his assistants and successor.
6 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
I am not aware that there is any separate volume in
the English language giving a history of Kanarese
literature. The most readable general account is to be
found in Mr. Lewis Rice's Gazetteer of Mysore, Vol. I,
and in his Mysore and Coorg from the Inscriptio7is.
Fuller details are contained in his introduction to
Bhattakalanka's Kariiataka Sabd(lnu§asana, a bulky
volume now out of print ; and in the Karyiataka
Kavi Charite or " Lives of the Kanarese Poets," by
Messrs. R. and S. G. Narasimhacharya, respectively
Oi^cer in charge of Archaeological Researches and
Kanarese Translator to the Government of Mysore.
The last-named work being written in Kanarese is
available only for those who know that language. Only
Part I has so far been published, which carries the
history up to the end of the fourteenth century. It
gives illustrative extracts from the works described.
The present popular account of Kanarese literature is
based on the above-named authorities, to whom acknow-
ledgement is hereby unreservedly made. Without their
researches this work could not have been written.
The enumeration of a long series of little known
writers cannot be other than tedious to the reader. I
have endeavoured to mitigate this effect by introducing
as much local colour as was available, and by sketching
in as a background an outline of the times in which the
poets lived and the atmosphere of religious faith and
custom in which they moved. For the sake of English
readers I have also explained many Indian terms which
require no explanation for the Indian reader.
By desire of the Editors, renderings have been
given of a few illustrative passages from typical works
belonging to different periods. In these, for reasons
partially indicated in Chapter X, the attempt has been
rather to express the general spirit of the original than
to offer a closely literal translation. Graces due to
alliteration, rhythm, vocabulary, and double meaning
are, of course, lost in any translation.
The systematic historical study of Kanarese
literature is of such recent origin, and every year is
PREFACE 7
adding so much to our knowledge, that on numerous
points there will soon be available fuller and more
accurate information than that presented in the present
volume. My brother, Mr. Lewis Rice, has kindly read
through the manuscript and made various suggestions.
Hassocks, E. P. R.
October, 1915.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
The call for a second edition made it desirable that
the account here given of Kanarese literature should be
brought, as far as possible in a book of this size, up to
the present state of our information. This has been
facilitated by the publication, in the meantime, of the
.second volume of Mr. Narasirhhacharya's Lives of the
Kanarese Poets, bringing the record up to 1700 A.D.
Much of the fresh information brought to light in that
volume has been here embodied, and so made available
for those who cannot read that book in the original
Kanarese. Its dates also have generally been followed,
as being based on the fullest and most recent data.
In other respects also this edition differs from the
former. Some re-arrangement of matter has been
made. The account of Lihgayat literature has been
extended and largely rewritten. Much has been added
to the accounts of Jaina and Vaishnava literature also.
An attempt has been made to elucidate more fully one
or two obscure points, such as the difference between
the Jaina and Brahmanical versions of the Ramayana,
the meaning of Syadvada, the origin of the Lihgayat
Revival, etc. To make room for this additional matter,
the Appendices have been omitted ; and also the
account of the Kingdoms and Dynasties of the Kanarese
country. As much as seemed necessary on these sub-
jects has been inserted elsewhere in the book. The
8 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
writer has gladly availed himself of the opportunity to
correct minor inaccuracies, some of which were due to
the haste, and some to the war conditions, under which
the first edition was produced. If, in its new form,
this little compilation prove more useful and reliable to
students of Kanarese literature ; and if, by disclosing
the contents of that literature to others, it contributes
toward a better understanding and greater mutual
sympathy between East and West, it will have fulfilled
the writer's earnest desire.
Hassocks, E. P. R.
July, 1920.
CONTENTS
:hap. page
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
I. The KA:srARESE Language and Country .. 11
Periods of the History of Kanarese Literature . . 15
II. The Jaixa Period to A.D. 1160.. .. ..17
The Jaina Religion in the Kanarese Country . . 17
The Kavirajamarga (c. 850) and Earlier Writers 25
Stanzas from Kavirdjanidrga . . . . . . 29
Writers from the Kavirajamarga to the Lihgayat
period . . . . . . . . . . 29
Illustrative extract from Panipa Rdmayana . . 38
III. Jaina Literature from 1160-1600 .. ..42
In the time of the Ballal Rajas . . . . . . 42
Under the Rajas of Vijayanagar . . . . . . 45
IV. The Rise of Lingayatism (1160) .. ..49
The Lihgayat or Vira§aiva Religion . . . . 49
Basava and the Early Apostles of Lingayatism . . 52
The Vachana Literature . . . . . . 56
Specimens of the Vachanas . . . . . . 57
V. Lingayat Writers from 1160-1600 .. ..59
Transition from Ancient to Mediaeval Kanarese . . 59
Lihgayat Writers in the time of Ballal Rajas . . 60
Stanzas from Somesvara ^ataka . . . . 62
Lihgayat Writers under Vijayanagar Kings 64, 67
Illustrative Extract from Basava Purdna . . 65
Verses by Sarvajna-murti . . . . . . 73
VI. The Rise of Vaishnava Literature (1440-1600) 75
The Vaishnava Revival . . . . . . . . 75
Early Vaishnava Works . . . . . . 77
Transition from Mediaeval to Modern Kanarese . . 78
Translations of Sanskrit Classics. . .. ..78
Popular Devotional Songs . . . . . . 79
A Song in Praise of Vishnu . . . . . . 82
10 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
CHAP. PAGE
VII. Kanarese Literature in the Seventeenth and
Eighteenth Centuries ,. ». ,.83
Three Outstanding Works .. .. ..83
Extract irom the Jaimini Bkaraia .. ..8$
Literature at the Court of the Rajas of Mysore . . 89
Jaina Writers of the Period . . . . . . 93
Lingayat Writers of the Period .. .. ..94
Works on Advaita Philosophy , . . . . . 95
Collections of Short Stories .. .. .,96
Specimen of Kanarese Humour . . . . 97
VIII. The Modern Period (Nineteenth Century) .. 99
New Classes of Works . . . . , . . . 99
Mysore Royal Anthem . . . . . . 102
Present Position and Prospects of Kanarese Litera-
ture .. .. .. ,. ..102
IX. Some Characteristics of Kanarese Literature 105
X. Kanarese Grammarians . . . . . . 110
XI. Sanskrit Writers in the Kanarese Country 114
Leading Dates . . . . . . . . . . 116
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Map of the Kanarese Country (at end of book)
I
THE KANARESE LANGUAGE AND
COUNTRY
The Dravidian Languages. Kanarese is one of the
Dravidian languages, which are the vernaculars of
South India, and which are wholly unrelated to the
Aryan languages spoken in North India. The other
literary members of the family are Tamil, Telugu and
Malayalam. A line drawn from Goa, on the West
Coast, to Rajmahal, on the Ganges, will approximately
divide the Dravidian languages on the south from the
Aryan languages on the north. There is a large
population of Dravidian race north of this ; but they
no longer speak a Dravidian language. No close
connection has been shown between the Dravidian
languages and any other languages of the world, if we
except Brahui, a non-literary language of Beliichistan.
Certain words and forms seem to point to a connection
with the ancient Median language used on the Behistun
monument (and perhaps with Akkadian). Affinities
are also said to exist with the Finnish of North Europe
and the Ostiak of Siberia. These call for fuller in-
vestigation.^ The Dravidians seem to have occupied
their present seats from extreme antiquity. One of
the earliest traces of this group of languages is found
in the fact that the peacocks imported into Jerusalem
by King Solomon 1000 B.C., and which must have come
from the west coast of India, have a Tamil name.'
^ See Caldwell's Comparative Gramtnar of the Dravidian
Languages.
^ Hebrew tukki = Tamil tokai, which, in ancient Tamil, meant
"peacock."
12 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
The Kanarese Country. The population speaking
Kanarese is about ten millions. The extent of country
in which it is now the vernacular is shown in the map
at the end of this volume. It includes the whole of
Mysore, the western half of the Nizam's Dominions
and the southern (so-called " South Mahratta and North
Canara ") districts of the Bombay Presidency, together
with the districts of South Canara and Bellary in the
Madras Presidency. With the exception of the Western
Ghats and the strip of land at their feet, the whole of
this tract is an upland plain from 1,200 to 3,000 feet
above the sea, with a fiat or gently undulating surface,
draining ofE to the East.
In the KavirajaniHrga (A.D. 850) the Kanarese
country is described as extending from the Kaveri to
the Godavari ; which shows that the linguistic area at
that time extended further north than at present.
Inscriptions, manuscripts, local names and other
evidence prove that Kolhapur, where the chief language
now is Marathi, was once in the Kanarese area. Also
in Sholapur town and district there are many Kanarese
inscriptions. The northern limits of Kanarese were pro-
bably pushed back by the Maratha raids and conquests.
The Name of the Language. Kanarese is called by
its own sons Ka?inada or Karyidtaka. The English
name is a corrupt form derived from the early Por-
tuguese, who entered the country through what is now
known as North Canara, and spoke of the country and
people as Canarijs. When the English settled on the
East Coast, all South India, from the river Krishna to
Cape Comorin, was under the rule of a Kanarese
dynasty, reigning at Vijayanagar, and was known as
the Karnataka Realm. Hence the name "Carnatic"
has come to be popularly applied to the coastal plains
south of Madras, although these are Tamil-speaking
districts and quite outside the Kanarese country proper.
Earliest Specimens. In a Greek papyrus of the
second century found at Oxyrrhynchus, in Egypt, occur
a few words quoted from some Indian language, which
Dr. Hultzsch thinks can be identified with Kanarese (See
KANARESE LANGUAGE AND COUNTRY 13
J.R.A.S., 1904, p. 399). If this be so, this will be
the earliest extant trace of Kanarese. Among the
earliest inscriptions, of approximately known date,
written in the Kanarese language, are the following,
the text and translation of which can be seen in the
Epigraphia Carnatica (quoted as E.G.). Those marked
with an asterisk are there given also in facsimile.
Date
Rock inscriptions at Srayana Belgola ; E.G. II, 1-21, 23,
26-35. No. 26* is quoted and translated below (p. 22). Early
On a stone in temple at Siragunda ; E.G. VI, Ghikmagalur
50.* c. 500
On a stone in temple at Kigga ; E.G. VI, Koppa 37. c. 675
On a stone found at Talkad, now in Victoria Jubilee
Institute, Mysore ; E.G. Ill, Tirumakiadlu Narsipura 11.*
It is figured as frontispiece to this book. 726
On a virakal found at Doddahundi representing the death
of the Ganga king, Nitimarga ; E.G. Ill, TN 91.* It is
now in the Bangalore Museum. c. 869
On a sculptured stone from a temple, in Begur, but now
in the Bangalore Museum ; E.G. IX, Bangalore 83.* c. 890
On a stone at Bellatur, a lengthy inscription by the poet,
Malla, recording the suicide by fire of a ^udra woman
whose husband had been put to death for killing a
kinsman, apparently in a wrestling match ; E.G. IV,
Heggadadevankote 18. 1057
The Kanarese Alphabet and Written Character. It is
to Sanskrit scholars from the north that Kanarese is in-
debted for its reduction to writing and its introduction
into the world of literature. The grammatical terms
and arrangement follow Sanskrit models.
The Alphabet is consequently syllabic, and follows
the orderly arrangement of the Sanskrit alphabet. It
even includes forms for ten aspirates, two sibilants and
certain vowels and a semi-vowel not required for
Dravidian words ; but there have been added five
characters (e, o, la, xa, la,) for sounds not occurring in
Sanskrit. The universal practice of making children
recite the Amur a Kosa (a metrical Sanskrit glossary)
from the very beginning of their education has helped
to Sanskritise the pronunciation of the language. The
aspirates are now freely used in indigenous words ; and
of its own characteristic letters two have dropped out of
2
14 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
use — la about the twelfth century, and ra about the
eighteenth century.^
" The written character which is common to Kanna^a
and Telugu, and which spread over the south and was
carried even to Java, is derived, through that of the
cave inscriptions in the west of India, from the South
Asoka character, or that of all his inscriptions except
in the extreme north-west of the Panjab. It belongs to
about 250 B.C., prior to which date no specimens of
writing have been discovered in India, though there are
numerous earlier allusions to writing. This ancient
alphabet has lately been satisfactorily proved by Dr.
Biihler to be of Semitic origin. It is properly called
the Brahvii lipi, and was introduced into India pro-
bably about 800 B.C." {Mysore Gazetteer, I, 491). For
the study of the character in successive centuries the
student is referred to Burnell's South India Paleography
(Triibner, 1878), and to Biihler's hidian PalcEography,
a translation of which appeared in the hidian Antiqiiary
for 1904.
Historic Changes. Dr. Kittel notes three stages in
the history of the language during the past thousand
years — viz. Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern.
The commencement of the second and third stages
coincides approximately with the beginning of the
Lihgayat and Vaishnava literatures respectively. (See
below, pp. 59 and 78 ; also Preface to Kittel's Kajuiada-
English Dictio7iary.)
It should be noted that the term " Ancient Kanarese"
does not always denote an obsolete form of the language.
For colloquial purposes it is, of course, obsolete ; but its
vocabulary and inflexions are still used for the purposes
of poetry. The term, therefore, sometimes denotes a
particular antique style of writing.
The Influence ol Neighbouring Languages. As
regards vocabulary, Kanarese is dependent on Sanskrit
for practically all abstract, religious, scientific, and philo-
♦ Both these letters are still retained in Tamil, Malayalam and
Badaga ; and the ra is retained in Telugu also. See Kittel's
Kannada Grammar, p. 15 note.
KANARESE LANGUAGE AND COUNTRY IS
sophical terms. Even the oldest extant Kanarese works
abound in Sanskrit terms. Andayya (c. 1235) by a
tour de force succeeded in excluding tatsamas (unchanged
Sanskrit words) from his Kabbigara Kava (see p. 44) ;
but even he uses tadbhavas (naturalised Sanskrit words)
which occur also freely in all inscriptions. It has been
well said that Sanskrit, though not the mother of Kana-
rese, is entitled to be called its foster-mother, because it
was owing to the vigour infused into it by Sanskrit that
it was enabled to become a literary language. {Essays
on Kajiarese Grammar , Comparative and Historical, by
R. Raghunatha Rau, B.A., Bangalore, 1894.)
Telugu seems to have had some influence in modify-
ing Kanarese inflections. This was probably due to the
extensive intercourse which always existed between the
two language areas, which are not separated by any
geographical barrier. Moreover, the two languages
have a common alphabet ; and their territories have
sometimes been under a common or allied sovereignty.
The Marathi language has influenced the dialects of the
north-west part of the country.
That the influence of Tamil has been only slight is
partly due to the fact that the two peoples used very
dissimilar alphabets. Moreover, the Eastern Ghats
formed a geographical boundary between them, Tamil
being mostly confined to the plains below, and Kanarese
to the plateau above. But some modifications due to
Tamil were probably introduced when Sri-Vaishijavism
was adopted from Tamil teachers.
PERIODS OF THE HISTORY OF KANARESE
LITERATURE
The history of Kanarese literature can best be
divided into periods corresponding to the religious
systems dominant in successive times.
1. Until the middle of the twelfth century it is
exclusively Jaina, and Jaina literature continues to be
prominent for long after. It includes all the more ancient,
and many of the most eminent, of Kanarese writings.
16 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
2. Lingdyat literature commences from about A,D.
1160, when Basavacharya revived the ancient Virasaiva,
or Lihgayat religion — an evolution which was signalised
by a great outburst of Virasaiva literary activity, wholly
different from that of the Jainas.
3. The Vaishyiava revival, beginning under Rama-
nujacharya in the beginning of the twelfth century,
continued by Madhvacharya (about 1250) and reinforced
by Chaitanya (1500), introduced a period in which
Brahmanic thought became dominant, an ascendance
which has continued up till the present time. Its
marked effect upon Kanarese literature may be said to
commence from the date of the Kanarese version of the
Bharata (c. 1440).
4. A Modern period is now in its early stages,
which has been brought into being by the impact of
Western thought and the influence of English literature.
The whole course of the history may be compared
to a river receiving tributaries. During the first
millennium of its course it is an unmingled stream of
Jaina thought. In the twelfth century this is joined by
the stream of Virasaivism ; and the two streams, like the
Rhone and Saone at Lyons, flow side by side without
mingling. In the beginning of the sixteenth century
these two are joined by a Vaishnava afifluent ; and the
united stream flows on until in the nineteenth century
it is broadened and much modified by a great inrush of
Western thought.
These different sections of Kanarese literature differ
not only in religious background, but also in literary
form. Jaina works are generally in cha7)ipu, i.e.
mingled prose and verse, the verse being in a great
variety of metres and evincing great literary skill.
Much Lihgayat literature is in prose ; its poetry is
mostly in six-lined stanzas, called shatPadi ; some is in
three-lined tripadi or in ragale. The longer Brahman-
ical works are also in shatpadi ; but there are beside
many lyrical compositions to popular airs. The litera-
ture of the Modern period is mostly in prose ; but a
popular form of composition is yakshagana.
II
THE JAINA PERIOD
TO A.D. 1160
Sriinat parama gambhlra syddvdd-dnwgla-lajic/iafiani
Jiydt trailokya-ndthasya iasaiiani Jina iCLsajiam.
" May the sacred Jaina doctrine, the doctrine of the lord of
the three worlds, be victorious ; — the supreme, profound syddvdda,
the token of unfailing success." This couplet is placed at the
head of most Jaina inscriptions.
THE JAINA RELIGION IN THE KANARESE COUNTRY
Up to the middle of the twelfth century practically
every Kanarese writer belonged to the Jaina faith; and
even after that date for several centuries some of the
most scholarly writers continued to be Jainas. It is,
therefore, well to preface the record of this period of
the literature with a few notes on the Jaina religion
and its connection with the Kanarese country. This is,
indeed, necessary in order that there may be a suitable
background for the story.
Its Dominance in the Kanarese Country. For more
than a thousand years after the beginning of the
Christian era, Jainism was the religion professed by
most of the rulers of the Kanarese people. The Ganga
kings of Talka^, the Rashtrakuta and Kalachurya kings
of Manyakheta, and the early Hoysalas were all Jainas.
Although the Kadambas and early Chalukyas were of
the Brahmanical faith, they were very tolerant of
Jainism, and did not withhold patronage from its
writers. Hiuen Tsang, in the seventh century, records
18 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
that he found the Jainas very numerous in these parts ;
and they seem to have been very successful in dispu-
tation with their rivals, the Buddhists. The Pandyan
kings of Madura were Jainas ; and Jainism was dominant
in Gujarat and Kathiawar. On the other hand, the
Pallavas of Kahchi, and the Cholas of Uraiyur and
Tanjore, were strongly Hindu and hostile to Jainism.
Its Introduction into South India. Jainism was intro-
duced into South India at some period prior to the
Christian era. An eminent Jaina leader, of the name
of Bhadrabahu, either in Pataliputra or Ujjayini, antici-
pating a prolonged famine in North India, led a large
community of Jainas towards the south, and travelled
as far as the two rocky hills, now called Sravana Belgola
(" Belgola of the Jainas "), in the centre of the Mysore
country. This is spoken of by the Jainas as the great
Digambara migration, and marks an epoch in their
history.
So far all scholars are agreed. Jaina traditions
state that this Bhadrabahu was the well-known h-tda
kSvalin {i.e. one of the six teachers who had complete
knowledge of the Jaina Scriptures), who was a con-
temporary of Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan
Empire. They say, further, that Chandragupta, who
ceased to reign in 297 B.C. at the age of fifty, but of
whose death the secular histories say nothing, laid
aside his sovereignty to become a Jaina ascetic, and
that he accompained Bhadrabahu to the south, and was
the sole attendant permitted to remain with him when,
feeling that his end was approaching, he ascended the
smaller hill at Sravana Belgola and took the vow of
sallekha7ia, or renunciation of life by voluntary star-
vation. Also that Chandragupta remained on the spot,
and died there twelve years later by the same rite.
Some scholars, on the other hand, are of opinion that
the Bhadrabahu in question lived in the first century
before Christ, and that the Digambara migration to the
south took place then.
Whatever may be the actual historical facts, the
tradition about Chandragupta has for thirteen hundred
iA
THE JAINA PERIOD 19
years or more been accepted as true by the Jainas.
Sravana Belgola became a place of pilgrimage. Many
devotees, both male and female, including some of royal
rank, took the vow of euthanasia on the same hill ; and
their piety and endurance are recorded in numerous
inscriptions on the rocky hillside. The hill became
gradually covered with temples, the most ancient
being one named after Chandragupta. In A.D, 983
a unique monument was dedicated on the adjoining hill.
A colossal image, 57^ feet high, of a nude Jaina ascetic,
was carved out of the living rock on the summit of the
hill. With serene and placid features it has stood there
for almost a thousand years looking over the plain,
whence it is visible for many miles. ^
Principal Tenets. The Jaina religion is an offspring
of the same movement of thought as that which pro-
duced Buddhism ; and the two religions have many
points of similarity. In neither is any cognisance taken
of a Supreme Being, Creator and Ruler of the World.
The reverence of the worshipper is bestowed upon
certain men, who are regarded as having by ascetic prac-
tices gained complete mastery over bodily passions.
These inen are called Ji7ias, or victors, and Tirthan-
karas (or Tirthakaras), that is, those who have crossed
the ocean of human distraction and reached the shore of
eternal placidity.^ Twenty-four of these are especially
named, the latest being Vardhamana Mahavira, a
slightly older contemporary of Gautama Buddha. The
' There are two similar images of the same saint, Gommata , in
the Tuluva country — one at Karkala, 41 feet high, dating from
1432 ; the other at Yenur, 35 feet, executed 1604. They are all on
hill tops, and within the Kanarese country; and are said to be the
largest free-standing statues in Asia (Vincent Smith's History
of Fine Art in hidia) . The name Gommata does not occur else-
where in India, and seems not to be known to the Jainas of the
North. He is identified in Jaina works with Bahubali, son of
the first Tirthankara, and brother of the Emperor Bharata.
' This was the original meaning. But modern Jainas use it
in the sense of the Founder of the four tirthas or orders (monks,
nuns, lay-brothers and lay-sisters) that collectively constitute 3,
Jaipa Sangha (Stevenson, fjeart of Jainism, p. xv).
20 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
images of these Tirthankaras are set up in the temples,
and reverenced as embodying the Jaina ideal of the con-
quering life. The legendary accounts of their lives,
showing the greatness of their renunciation, and through
what struggles they succeeded in snapping the bonds of
ka?-ma and attaining complete detachment from the
senses, form the subject of the Jaina PurClJias. In
choosing these as subjects for their poems they were
actuated by the same motives as Milton when he wrote
the Paradise Lost, or Caedmon when he sang of the
Creation.
The following are the names of the Tirthankaras,
who all bear the epithet of Nat ha, " Lord " :
1. Rishabha 9. Pushpadanta 17. Kunthu
2. Ajita 10. Sitala 18. Ara
3. Sambhava 11. Sreyamsa 19. Malli
4. Abhinandana 12. Vasupujya 20. Munisuvrata
5. Sumati 13. Vimala 21. Nami
6. Padmaprabha 14. Ananta 22. Nemi
7. SuparSva 15. Dharma 23. Pargva
8. Chandraprabha 16. ^anti 24. Vardhamana
The lives of the last two closely resemble that of Gautama
Buddha ; for, like him, after attaining enlightenment, they tra-
velled for many years over the plain of the Ganges, preaching
and making disciples, till they died at an advanced age. They
may be regarded as historical. The others are purely legendary.
All of them are represented as having been Kshatriya princes of
North India. All but two belonged to the Ikshvaku line of kings,
and ruled over one or another of the states along the Ganges
Valley. All but four passed to nirvana from the Pargvanatha
Hill in Bengal. The first, Rishabha, is said to have been the
father of Bahubali (Gommata) and of Bharata, the Emperor
from whom India derives its name of Bharata. The sixteenth,
v^antinatha, King of Hastinapura, is said to have been emperor of
all India. From his time the Jaina religion, which had been inter-
mittent before, became permanently established. The twentieth,
Munisuvrata, and twenty-second, Neminatha, were of the Hari
line, i.e. of the same family as Krishna. Hence their story is often
called a Harivami5a. Like Krishna, they are represented as dark-
hued. Neminatha was cousin to Krishna and Balarama ; and his
nirvana was from Girnar Hill in Kathiawar.
It will thus be seen that the Jaina ideal was asceti-
cism. Many of the Jaina writers whose names appear
in this book are spoken of as viunis or yatis, i.e. men
THE JAINA PERIOD 21
who practised the austerities of the ascetic life. The
complete conquest of the weakness of the flesh
expressed itself in the renunciation of clothing. The
images in the Jaina temples of South India are all
nude.^ The Jainas are divided into two sects, Digam-
baras ("space-clad"), who, on occasion and as far as
possible dispense with clothing altogether (as their
founder, Mahavira, did); and ^vStambaras ("clad in
white"). The yatis of the Kanarese country are
Digambaras ; but they wear a yellow robe, which they
cast off when taking meals.
One of the most outstanding characteristics of the
Jainas is the stress they lay on the duty of not taking
animal life in any form. This is carried to such an
extreme that Jaina monks wear a muslin cloth over
their mouth, lest they should inadvertently breathe in a
gnat ; and they carry a small brush with which to sweep
the path in front of them, lest they tread on a creeping
insect. This scruple largely debars Jainas from engag-
ing in agriculture.
The Vow of Sallekhana (called in Gujarati, Sa7i-
tharo). The most striking illustration of the self-
repressive character of Jainism is the vow of sallskhayia
referred to above. When old age, incurable disease,
sore bereavement, disappointment, or any other cause,
had taken away the joy of living, many resolute Jainas,
like some Stoics of the West, would hasten Yama's
tardy footsteps by taking the vow of euthanasia. In
spite of the fact that the taking of life is the greatest
sin conceivable to a Jaina, an exception was made in
favour of the vow of voluntary starvation, which was
looked upon as the highest proof of that victory over
the bodily passions which made a perfect Jaina. From
the earliest Christian centuries until the nineteenth
century the practice has survived. Jainas still take the
vow in their homes when death is imminent.
* In Gujarat also, Digambara images are nude ; but Svetam-
bara images are given loin-cloths (Mrs. Stevenson, Heart of
Jainism, p. 250) ,
22 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
The most notable scene of the rite is at Sravana Bel-
gola. The devotee would renounce all possessions and all
earthly ties, and resort to the bare rocky hill atSravana
Belgola, immediately to the north of that on which the
colossal statue to Gommata stands. There keeping his
mind free, on the one hand from relentings and on the
other hand from impatience for death, and letting his
thoughts dwell on those who had conquered the flesh
before and had attained the state of the gods, he would
simply await release by death. The rock is covered
with inscriptions recording the steadfastness of those
who have fulfilled the vow. Among them occur the
names of royal personages. Indraraja, the last of the
Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, being overwhelmed by the
Western Chalukyas in A.D. 973, died by this vow at
Sravana Belgola in 982. When Vishnuvardhana's
queen, Santala Devi, died, childless, at the very same
time as her father also died, the widowed mother,
Machikabbe, was disconsolate ; and the more so that
her son-in-law had abandoned the Jaina faith for Vaish-
navism. So she took the vow, and after severe fasting
for one month, passed away. Of the numerous inscrip-
tions upon the rock, some consist only of a single line.
Others are more or less lengthy and florid. The first
to be deciphered may be rendered as follows :
Swift fading as the rainbow's hue
Or lightning flash or morning dew,
To whom do pleasure wealth and fame
For many years remain the same ?
Then why should I, whose thoughts aspire
To reach the highest good, desire
Here on the earth long days to spend ?
Reflecting thus within his mind,
The noble Nandi Sen
All ties that bound to life resigned,
To quit this world of pain.
And so this best of anchorites
The World of Gods did gain.
Syadv^da. Jainas always speak of their philoso-
phical system under the name of Syadvdda. Their dis-
putants glory in the conquering power of this doctrine.
THE JAINA PERIOD 23
and their inscriptions are invariably prefaced with the
sloka given at the head of this chapter, and in which the
doctrine is extolled. Sydd is the Sanskrit for " it may
perhaps be," and Syadvada may be rendered, " the
affirmation of alternative possibilities," but it is a highly
technical term,
The most helpful exposition of the meaning and importance of
Syadvada has been given by Prof. Jacobi.^ He points out that it
is best understood by considering its relation to the doctrines it
was employed to oppose. The great contention of^ Advaitins
was that there is only one really existing entity, the Atman, the
One-only-without-a-second {ekddvitlyarn) , diUA that this is per-
manent (^nitya) , all else being non-existent (a-sai), a mere
illusion. Hence it was called the dtma-vdda, eka-vdda and nitya-
vdda. Their stock argument was that just as there are no such
entities as cup, jar, etc., these being only clay under various
names and shapes — so all the phenomena of the universe are only
various manifestations of the sole entity, atman. The Buddhists,
on the other hand, said that man had no real knowledge of any
such permanent entity ; it was pure speculation, man's knowledge
being confined to changing phenomena — growth, decay, death.
Their doctrine was therefore called anitya-vdda. As against both
these, the Jainas opposed a theory of varying possibilities of Being,
or various points of view {anekdnta-vdda) . Clay, as a substance
may be permanent ; but as a jar, it is impermanent — may come
into existence, and perish. In other words. Being is not simple,
as Advaitins assert, but complex ; and any statement about it is
only part of the truth. The various possibilities were classed
under seven heads {sapta-bhafiga) , each beginning with the word
sydd, which is combined with one or more of the three terms asti
{"is"), ndsti {"isnot"), and avaktavya ("cannot be expressed").
These are enumerated in the following passage in Dr. Bhandar-
kar's Search for Jaina Scripttires (pp. 95 fif.), to which Jainas
often refer for its exposition : —
" You can affirm existence of a thing from one point of view
{sydd asti) , A&Tiy it from another (sydd ndsti); and affirm both
existence and non-existence with reference to it at different times
(sydd asti ndsti) . If you should think of affirming both existence
and non-existence at the same time from the same point of view,
you must say that the thing cannot be so spoken of (sydd avak-
tavyah). Similarly under certain circumstances the affirmation of
existence is not possible {sydd asti avaktavyah); of non-existence
(sydd ndsti avaktavyah) ; and also of both {sydd asti ndsti avak-
' See Report of the Intertiatiotial Congress of Religions, held
at Oxford, 1908 ; and the article, Jainism, in Encyclopedia of
Religion and Ethics >
24 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
tavyah) . What is meant by these seven modes is that a thing
should not be considered as existing everywhere, at all times, in
all ways, and in the form of everything. It may exist in one
place and not in another, and at one time and not at another."*
Some Jaina Pandits illustrate the doctrine by pointing out that
one and the same man may be spoken of under different relations
as father, uncle, father-in-law, son, son-in-law, brother and
grandfather.
Decline. From about A.D. 1000 the predominance
of Jainism in South India began slowly to wane. This
was due to a series of causes. First, the influence of
Sankaracharya, whose inimical teaching gained ground
during the ninth and tenth centuries. Second, the fall
of the Ganga kingdom of Talka^ (1004) and the wide
conquests and temporary domination of the Chola
kings, who were bitterly hostile to Jainas. Rajendra
Chola is said to have ravaged the country as far as
Puligere, destroying Jaina temples and monasteries.
Third, the conversion of the Ballal raja to the Vaishnava
faith about 1100, Fourth, the revival of Virasaivism
under Basava of Kalyana, about 1160, together with the
overthrow of the Kalachuryas (1190), Fifth, the teach-
ing of Madhvacharya in the thirteenth century, which
gave a powerful impetus to Vaishnavism, Sixth, the
rise of the strong Brahmanical kingdom of Vijayanagar
in the fourteenth century. And finally, in the sixteenth
century, a wave of Vaishnava enthusiasm, inspired
by Chaitanya preaching the doctrine of Krishna-
bhakti, swept over the peninsula, and completed the
alienation of the people from the austere teaching of the
Jainas.^ Despite this change in the attitude of the
people, many works continued to be written by Jainas ;
but their learned men lived in retirement and no longer
enjoyed the patronage of courts. In 1838 one of these
learned men, named Devachandra, of Maleyur, wrote
for a lady of the Mysore royal family a prose work,
' Quoted from Mrs. Stevenson's Heart of Jainism, p. 92,
* On the other hand, the conversion to Jainism of Kumarapala,
King of Gujarat (1143-73) by the Acharya Hemachandra, led to a
great increase of its power in Gujarat.
THE JAINA PERIOD 25
entitled Rajavali Kathe, which is an interesting com-
pendium of Jaina traditions in South India.
THE KAVIRAJAMARGA (850) AND EARLIER WRITERS
The earliest extant Kanarese work of which the date
is known is the Kaviriijam^rga, or "The Royal Road
of the Poets." This has been frequently attributed to
the Rashtrakuta king, Nripatunga, and is commonly
spoken of as Nripatunga's Kavirdjamdrga. But it is
his only in the sense in which the English Authorised
Version of the Bible is called King James' Version.
Its real author was a poet at Nripatunga's court, whose
name appears to have been Srivijaya. Nripatunga
ruled from Manyakheta A.D. 814-877, and was a con-
temporary of Alfred the Great. The middle of the
ninth century, therefore, forms a starting point in the
record of Kanarese literature. Whatever was written in
Kanarese previous to that date has either not been
hitherto recovered, or is not of ascertained date.
The middle of the ninth century, however, is far
from being the date of the beginning of Kanarese
literature. We have abundant information of a large
number of earlier writers, extending back into earlier
centuries. The Kavirajamarga itself mentions by
name eight or ten writers in prose and verse, saying
these are but a few of many ; and it quotes, discusses
and criticises illustrative stanzas from other poets whose
names are not mentioned. Moreover, the character of
the book, which is a treatise on the methods of the poets
(see p. 110), itself implies that poetical literature was
already of long standing and widely known and appre-
ciated. The author testifies expressly (I, 38, 39), that
"in the Kanarese country, not students only, but the
people generally have natural quickness in the use and
understanding of verse."
In the present chapter such information will be
given as is available, not of all, but of the more notable,
of these earlier poets, copies of whose works have not
yet come to light.
26 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
Early Kanarese writers regularly mention three
poets as of especial eminence among their predecessors.
These are Samanta-bhadra, Kavi Parameshthi and
Pujyapada. These are apparently not among those
named in the Kavirajaviarga. We are not absolutely
certain that they wrote in Kanarese ; we know only of
their Sanskrit works, Sanskrit being the learned
language of that time as Latin was of the Middle Ages
in Europe. But inasmuch as they are so uniformly
named by later Kanarese writers as eminent poets, it is
probable that they wrote in Kanarese also ; and what we
know of them should be recorded here.
Samanta-bhadra should probably be placed in the
sixth century. He was a brilliant disputant, and a
great preacher of the Jaina religion throughout India.
Pataliputra (Patna), Thakka (in the Panjab), Sindh,
Vaidisa (Bhilsa, in Central India), Karahataka (Karha^
in Satara district), Vanarasi (Benares), and Kaiichi are
especially mentioned as among the places he visited. It
was the custom in those days, alluded to by Fa Hian
(400) and Hiuen Tsang (630), for a drum to be fixed in
a public place in the city, and any learned man, wishing
to propagate a doctrine or prove his erudition and skill
in debate, would strike it by way of challenge to dispu-
tation, much as Luther nailed up his theses on the door
of the church at Wittenberg. Samanta-bhadra made
full use of this custom, and powerfully maintained the
Jaina doctrine of Syadvada. It is told of him that in
early life he performed severe penance, and on account
of depressing disease was about to make the vow of
sallskhana, or starvation ; but was dissuaded by his guru,
who foresaw that he would be a great pillar of the Jaina
faith. He is said to have converted Sivakoti, the king
of Kaiichi,from Saivism, by some miraculous performance
in the Kaiichi temple. Old Kanarese commentaries on
some of his Sanskrit works still exist, but of any Kan-
arese works by him we have no trace.
Pujyapada, also called Devanandi, belongs to the sixth
or seventh century. He was a Jaina muni, or anchorite,
who practised yoga, and was believed to have acquired
THE JAINA PERIOD 27
the extraordinary psychic powers which yogis claim. He
travelled throughout South India, and went as far as
Videha (Behar) in the north. His learning extended
over a wide range. He wrote on Jaina philosophy ;
and also a treatise in Sanskrit on medicine, which long
continued to be an authority (see pp. 37 and 45). But
his fame rests chiefly on his grammatical works. He
not only wrote a commentary on Panini, called Paymii
Sabddvatara, but he composed a Sanskrit grammar of
his own, entiled Jamendra, which obtained great repute
(see below, p. 110). One of his disciples, Vajranandi, is
said to have founded a Tamil sahgha in Madura.
Concerning KaviparamSshthi less is known. He
probably lived in the fourth century. He may possibly
be the same as the KavUvara referred to in Kaviraja-
mdrga, and as the KaviparamSivara praised by Chavunda
Raya (978) and Nemichandra (1170), all these names
having the same meaning (" eminent poet ") and possibly
being only epithets.
Whether or not the above trio wrote in Kanarese,
there is information about many other writers who
certainly did. Among these especial mention should be
made of ^rtvarddhadeva, called also from his birthplace
Tumbuluracharya, who wrote a great work called
Chudamayii ("Crest Jewel"). It was a commentary
on the Tattvartha Mahasastra, and extended to 96,000
verses. Two facts make clear the greatness of this work.
An inscription of A.D. 1128 (E.C. II, No. 54) quotes a
couplet by the well-known Sanskrit poet, Dandin, of the
sixth century, highly praising its author, Srivarddhadeva,
as having "produced Sarasvati \i.e. learning and
eloquence] from the tip of his tongue, as Siva produced
the Ganges from the tip of his top-knot." And Bhattaka-
lahka, the great Kanarese grammarian (1604), refers to
the book as the greatest work in the language, and as
incontestable proof of the scholarly character and value
of Kanarese literature. If the author of the couplet
quoted is correctly given as Dandin, Srivarddhadeva
must have been earlier than the sixth century. It is
unfortunate that no copy has yet been found of this great
28 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
work, which appears to have been still in existence in
Bhattakalanka's time.
Other early writers mentioned in the Kavirdjamar ga,
but whose works are lost, are Vimala, Udaya, Nagdr-
ju7ia, Jayabafidhu, DurvmUa and ^rivijaya. For such
fragmentary information as is available of these, the
Kanarese student is referred to the Karnataka Kavi
Charite. Mention may also be made of Gunaiiandi{c. 900),
quoted by the grammarian, Bhattakalanka, and always
called by him Bhagavdn, "the adorable"; he was the
author of a logic, grammar and sahitya, i.e. a composi-
tion in literary, rhetorical style.
Much interest attaches to the name of Diirvijilta.
He was the author of ^abdavatdra ; of a Sanskrit version
of Gunadhya's Brihat-Katha ; and of a commentary on
the difficult 15th sarga of Bharavi's KirHtarjiuiiya}
He has been supposed to be identical with the Ganga
king of the same name, who ruled 482-522. Whether
this is so or not will depend partly on the dates of
Gunadhya and Bharavi. Of Gunadhya see p. 38 note.
Of Bharavi we only know that he was earlier than 610,
when he is mentioned along with Kalidasa as a famous
poet. If he was a contemporary of Kalidasa, he would
belong to the fifth century. Unless he was yet earlier,
it is scarcely probable that his work would have been
known in South India as early as the date of the Ganga
king. Future researches may decide this point.
Although none of the books mentioned in this
chapter have yet come to light, some may still be
discovered ; for there are old Jaina libraries which have
been jealously guarded from alien eyes (sometimes
buried below ground) and whose contents are not yet
fully known.
* This sarga contains a number of stanzas ilh:stratins? all
kinds of verbal tricks, like those described in Dandin's Kdvyddarsa
(" Mirror of Poesy, " end of sixth century). E.g . stanza 14 contains
no consonant but n except a ^ at the end {A^a nonanunno imnnono,
etc.) ; and in stanza 25, each half-line, if read backwards, is identi-
cal {Devdka nini kdvdde, etc.). l/lsiQ^oneWs History of Sanskrit
Literature .
THE JAINA PERIOD 29
Stanzas from the Kavirajamarga. A.D. 850
THE KANARESE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE
In all the circle of the earth
No fairer land you'll find,
Thau that where rich sweet Kannada
Voices the people's mind.
'Twixt sacred rivers twain it lies —
From famed Godavari,
To where the pilgrim rqsts his eyes
On holy Kaveri.
If you would hear its purest tone
To Kisuvolal go ;
Or listen to the busy crowds
Through Kop'na's streets w-hich fiow ;
Or seek it in Onkuuda's walls,
So justly famed in song.
Or where in Puligere's court
The learned scholars throng.
The people of that land are skilled
To speak in rhythmic tone ;
And quick to grasp a poet's thought,
So kindred to their own.
Not students only, but the folk
Untutored in the schools.
By instinct use and understand
The strict poetic rules. (I. 36-39.)
The original of the first line in the above verses may
be quoted as a specimen of the Alliteration, which forms
one of the graces of Kanarese poetical composition, but
which cannot be reproduced in a translation :
Vasudhd vilaya villna visada vishaya viseshani.
JAINA WRITERS FROM THE KAVIRAJAMARGA TO THE
LINGAYAT REVIVAL (1160)
During the first half of this period, the patrons of
Kanarese literature were — in the north, the Rashtrakiitas
of Manyakheta, and in the south, the Gangas of Talkad.
In 973, the Rashtrakiitas were displaced by the Chalukyas
who made Kalyana their capital. Not long afterwards
(c. 1000) the Ganga kingdom, which had lasted for
3
30 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
eight centuries, was overthrown by the Cholas. Its
power passed, after an interval of Chola domination, to
the Hoysalas or Ballal rajas, who ruled from 1040-1326.
The Hoysala capital was at Dorasamudra (Halebid).
They are noted for the highly ornate temples they
erected.
TENTH CENTURY
The earliest author of whom we have information
after the Kavirajamarga was Gtmavarma I , who wrote
under the patronage of a Ganga king bearing the title
Mahendrantaka, and therefore identical with Ereyappa,
886-913. 'H.Qw^voiesi Harivar>t^a ox Nsmi?iat ha Pur ana,
and also a book called ^fldraka, in which he compares
his royal patron to King Sudraka, the reputed author of
the Sanskrit drama Mricchakaiika, or " Clay Cart."
Three poets of the tenth century are sometimes
spoken of as the Three Gems. These are Pampa, Ponna
and Ranna. They are all highly praised by later Kana-
rese poets.
Pampa, who will be called Adi Pampa to dis-
tinguish him from a later poet, was born in 902. He
belonged to a prominent Brahman family of Vengi ; his
father however abandoned the Brahmanical faith for
Jainism. The son became court-poet, and apparently
also a general or minister, under a prince named Ari-
kesari, who was a descendant of the early Chalukya kings,
but at this time was a tributary of the Rashtrakutas.
Arikesari's court was at Puligere (Lakshmesvar), and
it is in the especially excellent Kanarese of this capital^
that the poet claims to write. It was in 941, when he
was thirty-nine years of age, that the poet composed in
a single year the two poems which have made his name
famous, and which he says were intended to popularise
what to the Jainas were sacred and secular history
respectively.
The first book was the Adi Pura^ia, and relates the
history of the first Tirthankara. Mr. Narasimhacharya,
* Compare the stanza quoted on p. 29.
THE JAINA PERIOD 31
than whom there could be no better judge, and who has
himself written Kanarese poetry, praises it as " unsur-
passed in style among the Kanarese poets."
In his next work, called Vikratndrjmia Vijaya, but
more generally spoken of as the Paj?ipa Bharata, he
tells the story of the Mahabharata. It is interesting as
being the earliest extant Kanarese version of this epic.
The poet, however, states in his preface that there had
been many versions before his. It differs from Vyasa's
account chiefly in the following particulars : — (1) Drau-
padi is the wife of Arjuna only, not of the five Pandavas.
(2) Arjuna is the chief hero throughout, and it is he
and Subhadra who are finally crowned at Hastinapura.
(3) The book terminates at Arjuna's coronation, the
later parvas not being included, (4) The poet deliber-
ately identifies his patron, Arikesari, with Arjuna, and
so makes him the real hero. In Oriental style he
compares him to Vishnu, Siva, the Sun, Cupid, etc.^
This flattery mar-s the beauty of the work, although the
poem has the advantage of being less Sanskritic in
vocabulary than the earlier one. The author was re-
warded with the grant of a village.
Contemporary with Pampa was Ponna, who, like
Pampa's father, was originally of Vengi, and had come
into the Kanarese country after his conversion to the
Jaina faith. He wrote both in Sanskrit and Kanarese,
and hence received the honorific title of Ubhaya-Kavi-
Chakravarti ("Imperial Poet in Both Languages").
This title was given to him by his patron, the Rashtra-
kuta king, Krishnaraja (called also Akalavarsha and
Anupama), who was ruling at Manyakheta, 939-968.
The poet's fame rests chiefly on his §anti Purana,
which records the legendary history of the sixteenth
Tirthankara. It was written at the suggestion of two
brothers, who later became generals under a succeeding
king, Tailapa, to commemorate the attainment of
nirvana by their guru, Jinachandradeva. He was also
' We may perhaps compare the way, much less emphatic, in
which the EngUsh poet Spencer makes Queen Elizabeth the
" Gloriana " of the Faerie Queen.
32 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
the author of the Jniaksharaviale^ an acrostic poem in
praise of the Jinas. Other works attributed to him
have not been recovered.
Ranna, the third member of the trio, was a Vaisya of
the bangle-sellers' caste. Mr. Narasimhacharya speaks
in high praise of his skill, fluency and fascinating style.
He wrote under the patronage of two Western Chalukya
kings, Tailapa (973-997), and his successor (997-1008),
and from them received various titles of honour. The
poet's first work was the Ajita Purana^ a history of the
second Tirthankara, written in 993. It was composed
at the suggestion of a devout lady, the daughter of one
of the two patrons of Ponna.
In his second work, Sahasa Bh'ima Vijaya, called also
Gada-yuddha (the " Conflict with Clubs"), he tells the
story of how Bhima fulfilled his vow to break the limbs
of Duryodhana with his club andslay him. But through-
out the poem his royal patron, Ahavamalla, whose name
lent itself to the comparison, is likened to Bhima, and
becomes the real hero. Other works attributed to this
poet have been lost.
Chavunda Raya, who was the patron of Ranna and a
contemporary of the "Three Gems," was himself an
author, and in other respects a very remarkable person-
age. He was a minister of the Ganga king, Rachamalla
IV (974-984) , and a general who by bravery in many
battles had gained numerous titles of distinction. It
was he who at enormous cost had the colossal statue of
Gommateswara executed at Sravana Bslgola, and it was
in recognition of this act of munificence that he received
the title of Raya. He was also a patron of the poet
Ranna, and himself has gained a place in the history of
literature by a prose work, entitled T rishashti-lakshana
Ma/ia-puraiia, but better known as Cliavundaraya
Purana, containing a complete history of all the twenty-
four Tirthankaras. The book is of special interest and
value because it is the oldest extant specimen of a book
written in continuous prose, and therefore enables us
to gain a knowledge of the language as spoken in the
tenth century. It is dated 978.
THE JAINA PERIOD 33
About 984 Nagavarma I wrote the Chhandoynhiddhi,
or " Ocean of Prosody," which, with additions by later
writers, still remains the standard work on Kanares;e
prosody. It is addressed by the author to his wife. In
the account of the vritias, each verse is composed so as
to be an example of the metre described in it. To him
we also owe a Kanarese version of Bana's Sanskrit
Kadambari, which relates the fortunes of a princess of
that name. The author's family had come from Vengi,
but he is spoken of as a man of Sayyadi, which is said
to be a village in the Kisukadu Nad {i.e. near Pattadakal ;
see map). He states that he wrote under the king
Rakkasa Ganga, who was reigning in 984. He also was
patronised by Chavunda Raya.
The last three writers were all disciples of the same
preceptor, who was also guru to the Ganga king, Racha-
malla.
ELEVENTH CENTURY
In the eleventh century there are not many names
of Kanarese writers. This was, perhaps, owing to the
disturbed condition of the country caused by the Chola
invasions, in which the country was ravaged and many
Jaina shrines were destroyed.
In 1049, Srldharacharya wrote the earliest extant
Kanares_e work on astrology, citing the Sanskrit astro-
nomer Aryabhata (499).
To about 1079 belongs Chaiidraraja, who (apart
from the writers of sasanas) is the earliest Brahmanical
poet in Kanarese literature. He lived under the
patronage of Machi Raja, a general of the Chalukya
king, Jayasimha, and for him wrote the Madana-tilaka,
a short poem remarkable on account of its many ingeni-
ous stanzas capable of scansion in various ways, or
showing feats of literary manipulation of sounds and
words. (See Karnataka Kavi Chariie, Vol. I, pp.
74-77.)
To about the same time belongs Nagavar7nacharya
of Balipura (Belgami, in Shimoga district, capital of
the Banavase 12,000), where he built temples and
34 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
bathing ghats. He was an Advaitin. His Chandra
Chuciamani Sataka is a cento of verses in praise of
detachment (vai?dgya); it sometimes bears the name
of Jna,7ia-sara.
TWELFTH CENTURY
To about 1105 belongs Nagachandra or AbJiiiiava
Pampa (the " Second Pampa "), of whom special men-
tion must be made, both for the merit of his style and
the unique value of one of his works. Little is known
of his personal history ; but the statement is probably
to be accepted that he was one of a group of poets at
the court of the Ballal raja, Bitti Deva, the same who
afterwards became a Vaishnava and took the name of
Vishnuvardhana (1104-1141). He wrote the Mallinatha
Purana, giving the story of the nineteenth Tirthankara,
a work which reveals great descriptive power.
But especial interest attaches to his Ramachandra-
charitra-purdna, commonly known as the Pampa
RamAyana, which was written as a pendant to the
Pampa Bhdrata of his predecessor. This work has
unique value, because it preserves for us a Jaina version
of the Ramayana, which differs in important respects
from the Brahmanical version. While the main thread
of the narrative coincides with that of the Valmiki
Ramayana, there is a very wide difference in details.
The following are some of the more noteworthy differences: —
The whole atmosphere is Jaina. India throughout appears as
a Jaina country. No reference is made to Brahmans or Brahman-
ism. The hermits in the forest are Jaina yatis. Rama, Ravana
and all the characters are Jaina, and generally end their career
as Jaina yatis.
The Rakshasas are only occasionally called by that name.
They are generally stj'led vidyadharas (i.e. beings having the
power of movement through the air).* In fact, all the inhabitants
of the earth belong to one or other of two classes, khecharas
^movers through the air) and bhiicharas (walkers on the earth).
I.e. jinns and men.
* The hero and many of the characters of the Sanskrit Buddhist
drama Nagdnanda (seventh century) are represented as vidya-
dharas, literally " possessors of (magical) knowledge."
THE JAINA PERIOD 35
In place of the supernatural and grotesque marvels of the
Brahmanic story we have a natural and comparatively credible
narrative. For example, Sugriva, Hanumanta and their followers
are not monkeys, but human beings whose standard bears the
figure of a monkey {vanara-dhvaja) } No bridge is built across
the sea to Lanka with torn-off tops of mountains ; the army is
transported across the water through the air by nabhogaynana vidyd
" as though " on a bridge (XII, 91). Ravana received the name
" ten-headed " not because he really had ten heads, but because
when he was bom his face was seen reflected on the ten facets of
a jewel-mirror which was in the room.
Rama and Lakshmana are not incarnations of Vishnu (there
is, of course, no horse-sacrifice), but are called kdrana purushas,
i.e. beings with a special destiny. They are ultimately identified
with the eighth Baladeva and Vasudeva. Lakshmana is called
Krishna, Ke§ava, Achyuta. Throughout the wanderings of the
exile he is the champion and warrior on behalf of Rama, and per-
forms all the great exploits ; and finally it is by his weapon that
Ravana is slain.
The minor details and episodes differ considerably from the
corresponding ones in Valmiki. For example, Lakshmana and
Satrughna have different mothers. Rama's mother is not called
Kausalya, but Aparajita. Sita has a twin brother named Prabha-
mandala, who was stolen in infancy, and only discovered his
relationship when wishing to compete for SIta's hand. Nothing
is said of Ravana 's being invulnerable by gods and demi-gods.
Other Jaina versions of the Ramayana in Kanarese
are the KumudSridii Ramayana in shatpadi (c. 1275); the
Ramachaiidra-charitra by Chandrasekhara and Padma-
nabha (1700-1750); and the Raniakaihavatara in prose
by Devachandra (c. 1797). The story is also found,
more briefly, in ChaimndaRaya Pura?ia{'^lS) , Nayasena's
Dhar7namriia{1112) , andNagaraja's Punyasrava (1331),
and other works.
There is no equally wide divergence between the
Jaina and Brahmanical versions of the Mahabharata.
The explanation will probably be found in the fact that
the Ramayana epic grew up in North-East India
(Kosala and Videha), the home of Jainism and of Bud-
dism ; and is the most famous Brahmanical outcome of
' It Is interesting to remember that the standard of the
Kadambas of Banavase, who ruled a great part of the Kanarese
country from the third century to 566, was a flag bearing the
figure of a monkey, and called vdnara-dhvaja.
36 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
a cycle of floating traditions and legends, which took
varying and independent forms, not only among Jainas
and Buddhists, but among Brahmanisls themselves.
The Ravi-charit-manas oi Tulsi Das differs considerably
from Valmiki ; so does Kambam's Tamil Ramayana.
The Buddhists have a Dasaratha Jataka, which makes
no mention of Ravana, The oldest Prakrit poem of the
Jainas, the Pafunachariya (= Padma-charita) of Vimala
Suri, edited by Prof. Jacobi (Bhavanagar, 1914), and
placed by him in the third century A.D., is yet another
story dealing with the same characters as the Rama-
yana. The Mahabharata, on the other hand, belongs
wholly to North-West India. Panini, Pataiijali, and
Amarasimha, who all lived in North-West India,
mention the Mahabharata characters, but never the
Ramayana characters. Hence there are no Buddhist,
and only slight Jaina, variants of the Mahabharata story. ^
Other Poets (1100-1160). At the court of the Ballal
Raja at Dorasamudra at the same time as Nagachandra
were Kanti and Rajaditya.
Kanti is the earliest known Kanarese poetess, and
was of the Jaina faith. " Kanti " is the name given to
Jaina nuns or female devotees. It is related that the
king, to test her skill, made Nagachandra recite half a
stanza, which Kanti would immediately complete ;
somewhat after a fashion recently current in England
of completing "Limericks." A further story, but less
probable, is told of how Nagachandra laid a wager that
he would compel Kanti to eulogise him in verse. To
effect this purpose he pretended to swoon, and feigned
death. When the poetess, struck with sorrow, had
pronounced on him a panegyric, he sprang up and
claimed to have won his wager.
Rajaditya, a Jaina of Pavinabage, is remarkable in-
asmuch as he devoted his poetical talents to the elucida-
tion of mathematical subjects. With extraordinary skill
he reduced to verse rules and problems in arithmetic,
mensuration and kindred subjects. His writings are
» See Indian Antiquary, Vol. XIX (1890), p. 378 ff.
THE JAINA PERIOD 37
the earliest works on these subjects in the Kanarese
language.
Nayasena (1112) of Mulugunda, in the Dharwar
district, is known by a book on Morals, entitled Dharma-
mrita, in which he discourses in easy and pleasant style
through fourteen chapters on as many forms of virtue,
including courage, truthfulness, chastity, justice, etc.
He says in the preface that he has set himself to avoid
the needless use of Sanskrit terms, which was a fault
of many contemporary poets.
Nagavarma II (c. 1145) was the author of three
important grammatical works, Kavyavalokana, Kariia-
taka- Bhasha-bJulshana and Vastu-kosa. On these see
page 111.
Karnaparya (c. 1140) wrote, among other works, a
Nemi7iatha-purana, or history of the twenty-second
Tirthankara. It includes the stories of Krishna, the
Pandavas and the War of the Mahabharata.
Jagaddala Sovianatha (c, 1150) translated into
Kanarese Pujyapada's Sanskrit Kalyana-karaka. This
is the oldest extant book on medicine in the Kanarese
language. The treatment it prescribes is entirely
vegetarian and non-alcoholic.
Vritta-vilasa (c. 1160) made a Kanarese version in
champu of a Sanskrit work by Amitagati (1014), entitled
Dharma-parlkshe . It tells how two Kshatriya princes
went to Benares, and in successive meetings with the
Brahmans there, exposed the vices of the gods as
related in the sacred books ; e.g. it is shown that not
one of the gods is fit to be trusted with the care of a
girl, and the incredibility is urged of such stories as that
of Hanumanta and his monkeys. By these discussions
their faith in Jainism is confirmed. The work is of
value as throwing light on the religious beliefs of the
time when it was written. Brahma Siva of Pottanagere
(c. 1125) is another controversial writer. In his
Saviaya-parikshe, he points out the defects of rival
creeds, and justifies the Jaina position.
Br^hmanical Writers. Beside the Madaiia-tilaka and
the Chandra-chuddviani-sataka already mentioned, the
38 HISTORY OP KANARESE LITERATURE
only work by a non-Jaina in this period was a champu
version of the Panchatantra by Durgasiiiiha (c. 1145).
He was a Smarta Brahman of Sayyadi in the Kisuka(Ju-
nad, and held oflice under the Chahikya king, Jagadeka-
malla (1139-1149). His work is based professedly on
Guna^hya, whom he speaks of as a poet of the court of
" Salivahana," by which we are probably to understand
a Satavahana of Paithan.^
There were, it is true, other Brahmanical scholars,
but they wrote in Sanskrit. As a rule, their literary
work in Kanarese was confined to the composition of
iasanas (edicts or deeds of donation, engraved on stone
or copper). These are mostly in verse, and often
exhibit considerable poetic skill. Special attention
may be drawn to the sasanas dated 929, 1084, 1102, 1137
and 1147, quoted by Mr. Narasimhacharya.
Illustrative Extract from the Pampa Ramayana
A.D.c. 1105
HOW HAVANA SOUGHT THE AID OF MAGIC IN
ORDER TO OVERCOME RAMA
The following attempt to reproduce, In abridged
form, the spirit of a passage in the Pampa Ramayana
(XIV, 75-105) will serve to illustrate (i) the Jaina
atmosphere of the poem; (ii) its serious ethical tone;
(iii) the nature of the champu style of composition —
mingled prose and verse — the verse being of various
metres.
Hearing of Lakshmana's perfect recovery from his wound,
and of his preparation for a fresh attack, Ravana's ministers
advised him to send Sita back to her rightful lord, and to make
an alliance with Rama ; adding that he could not hope for victory,
as Rama and Lakshmana were stronger than he, and uncon-
querable. Thereat Ravana was greatly enraged, and said :
* Of Gunadhya's date It Is only known that it was considerably
earlier than' A. D. 600. His Brihat-katful, or " Great Story Book,"
was written in a " Paifiacha," i.e. local Prakrit, language, and is
not now extant. But it was the basis of the great collection of
stories on Sanskrit, called Katha-sarit-sagara (" Ocean of Rivers
of Story ") by Somadeva (c. 1070).
THE JAINA PERIOD 39
" Shall I, who made e'en Swarga's lord
Before my feet to fall,
Now meekly yield me, — overawed
By this mere princeling small ?
Nay, better 'twere, if so must be.
My life be from me reft.
I still could boast, what most I prize,
A warrior's honour left.
Natheless, to make my victory sure,
I'll have recourse to magic lore.
There is a spell, the shastras tell,
Which multiplies the form.
If this rare power I may attain,
I'll seem to haunt the battle-plain.
My 'wildered enemies shall see.
Before, behind, to left, to right,
Phantasmal Ravans crowd to fight.
Whom darts shall strike in vain.
Its name is bahu-rupini .
'Tis won by stern austerity."
That nothing might impede him in the acquiring of his magic
power, Ravana issued orders that throughout Lanka and its
territories no animal life should on any account be taken ; that
his warriors should for a time desist from fighting ; and that all
his subjects should be diligent in performing the rites of Jina
pujd.
Then entered he the Jaina fane
His palace walls within.
Attendant priests before him bore
The sacred vessels, as prescribed
In books of holy lore.
And there to lord SantiSvara
He lowly reverence paid ;
Omitting no due ritual
That might secure his aid.
After worship had been performed with due solemnity, he
took a vow of silent meditation ; and seating himself in the
padmdsana posture, began a course of rigorous concentration of
mind and suppression of the bodily senses.
And there he sat, like statue fixed ;
And not a wandering thought was mixed
With his abstraction deep.
Upon his hand a chaplet hung,
With beads of priceless value strung,
And on it he did ceaseless tell
The mantras that would serve him well.
40 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
When VibhTshana learned through spies what Ravana was
doing, he hastened to Rama, and urged him to attack and slay
Ravana before he could fortify himself with this new and
formidable power. But Rama replied :
" Ravan has sought Jinendra's aid
In true religious form.
It is not meet that we should fight
With one engaged in holy rite,
His weapons laid aside.
I do not fear his purpose fell.
No magic spell can serve him well
Who steals his neighbour's bride."
Vibhishana and Angadaare disappointed with this reply, and
resolve to try and bi'eak Ravana 's devotions without the
knowledge of Rama. So they send to disturb him some of the
monkey-bannered troops.
They rush toward the town in swarms upon swarms :
They trample the corn, and they damage the farms ;
They frighten and chevy the maidens about ;
And all through the temple they shriek and they shout,
And make a most fearful din.
But Ravana stirred not ; — as still as a stone,
His mind was intent on his japa alone.
Then the yakshas, or guardian spirits of the Jina shrine,
interpose, drive forth the intruders, and appeal to Rama and
Lakshmana to withdraw them. Finally it is arranged that any-
thing may be done to break Ravana's devotions, so long as his
life is not taken and the palace and temples are not destroyed.
Then Angada, heir to Kishkindha's wide soil.
Determines himself Rilvan's penance to spoil.
He mounts on Kishkindha, his elephant proud ;
And round him his ape-bannered followers crowd.
He rides through the suburbs of Lanka's fair town,
Admiring its beauty, its groves of renown.
He enters the palace, goes alone^to the fane ;
With reverence he walks round Santi^vara's shrine.
And in lowliness worships the image divine.
When — sudden — he sees giant Ravana there,
Seated, still as some mountain, absorbed in his praj'er !
Surprised and indignant, in anger he speaks : —
" What ! miscreant, hypocrite, villain ! dost thou
" In holiest temple thy proud forehead bow —
" Who hast right ways forsaken, thy lineage disgraced,
" The good hast imprisoned, the harmless oppressed,
" And hast snatched from thy neighbour his virtuous wife, —
" How canst t/um dare to pray in Santifivara's hall !
" Better think on thy misdeeds, and turn from them all,
THE JAINA PERIOD 41
"Know by Rama's keen arrows in death thou shalt fall ;
" And no magical rite the dread doom can forestall.
" When the flames round thy palace leap higher and higher,
" Too late thou digg'st wells to extinguish the fire ! "
Thus saying, he tore off Ravana's upper garment and smote
him with it ; he scattered the beads of his chaplet upon the
ground ; he stripped Ravana's queen of her jewels, and slandered
her sorely ; he tied her maidens in pairs by the hair of their
heads ; he snatched off their necklace-s and hung them round the
necks of the Jaina images ; and he defied and insulted Ravana in
every possible way.
The poor trembling women were frantic with fear.
And tried to rouse Ravau. They bawled in his ear —
" What's the good of thy japa ? Rise, save us from shame !
" Rise quickly and fight for thine ancient good name."
But Ravana heard not, nor muscle did move, —
As fixed as the Pole Star in heaven above.
Then a thunderbolt's crash rent the firmament wide ;
And adown the bright flash did a yakshinl glide.
And swiftly took station at Ravana's side.
" I have come at thy bidding," the visitant said,
" I can lay on the field all thine enemies dead ; —
" Save Hanuman, Lakshman and Rama divine,
" Who are guarded by might that is greater than mine."
" Alas ! " answered Ravan, with spirit depressed,
" If those three remain, what availeth the rest ? " f
NOTE ON THE DATE OF SAMANTA-BHADRA
AND PUJYAPADA.
I am indebted to Dr. J. N. Farquhar for the following valu-
able information. The chronology of all the early Jaina writers
who used Sanskrit and wrote on philosophy depends on the date
of Umasvati, whose Tattvdrthadhigauta-sutra is the fountain-head
of Jaina philosophy and also of the use of Sanskrit by Jainas.
This date cannot be earlier than the fourth century, for he
quotes the Yoga-sTitra, which cannot be dated earlier than A.D.
300. Samanta-bhadra wrote a commentary on Umasvati 's great
work, and the earliest author who quotes him is Kumarila, who
flourished A.D. 700. Thus Samanta-bhadra must belong to the
fifth, sixth or seventh century. Piljyapada, who also wrote a
commentary on Umasvati, is placed by the Digambaras between
Samanta-bhadra and Akalanka. As Akalanka is attacked by
Kumarila, we get this order : — The Voga-sutra, not earlier than
A.D. 300; UmSsvati, fourth or fifth century; Samanta-bhadra;
Piijyapada; Akalanka; Kumarila, A.D. 700.
Ill
JAINA LITERATURE
FROM 1160-1600
In the twelfth century two new religious movements
showed themselves in the Kanarese country, and
thenceforward steadily continued to gain strength.
These were Lirigayatism, generally represented as
originating with Basava in 1160, and Vaishnavism,
originating with Ramanuja about 1120. The former
began at once to aflect Kanarese literature ; the latter
did not influence it to any extent until the fifteenth
century. Jaina writers continued to be predominant
during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and to
hold their own in competition with the others for
two centuries more. It will therefore be convenient
to continue the account of Jaina literature till the
break-up of the Vijayanagar kingdom about 1600. It
falls into two periods, corresponding roughly to the
times of the later Ballal rajas and of the Vijayanagar
kings respectively.
IN THE TIME OF THE LATER BALLAL RAJAS
(1160-1326)
Lives of Tirthankaras. Many of the Jaina works
are styled Purdnas, and bear the name of one or another
of the Tirthankaras, whose lives they record. Rarely
did a decade pass without one or more considerable
works of this sort in champu ; as will be seen from the
following list :
JAINA LITERATURE 43
A.D.
Author
Name of Purana ^- Jl^' Pf
Tirthankara
c. 1170
Nemichandra
Neminatha
22
1189
Affgala
Chandraprabha
8
c. 1195
Achanna
Vardhamana
24
c. 1200
Bandhuvarma
Harivam§abhyudaya
22
1205
ParSvapandita
ParSvanatha
23
1230
Janna
Anantanatha
14
c. 1235
Gunavarma II
Pushpadanta
9
c. 1235
Kamalabhava
SantiSvara
16
1254
Mahabalakavi
Neminatha
22
It will be noticed that three of the works treat of
the popular twenty-second Tirthankara, who was
related to Krishna. Some of the poets in this list
deserve mention for works on other subjects also.
Nemichandra was the author of the earliest known
specimen of the Novel, or genuine work of fiction, in the
Kanarese language. It is written in the usual champu in
a pleasing style, but disfigured by erotic passages. It
is entitled Li/avatl, and tells how a Kadamba prince
saw in a dream a beautiful princess (the heroine) and
she likewise dreamt of him. They were unacquainted,
but after mutual search and various adventures were
ultimately wedded. The story is based on the Sanskrit
romance Vasavadatta by Subandhu (c. 610), but the
scene is transferred from Ujjayini to Banavase.
Nemichandra was eminent at the court of Vira
Ballala, and at that of Lakshmana-raja, the Silahara ruler
of Kolhapur. It was at the suggestion of Vira Ballala's
minister that he undertook to write the Neminatlm-
ptcrana. As the poet died before its completion, it has
become known as the Arddha NSmi, the "Unfinished
Life of Nemi."
Janna was a man of varied gifts and considerable
munificence, being both court-poet and minister at the
Ballal court, and also the builder and beaut ifier of
temples. He was a pupil of Nagavarma I. Beside the
Purana named above, he wrote several metrical iasanas
and also the YaSodhara-charitre (1209). This relates
how a king was about to sacrifice two boys of noble
birth to Mariamma, but was so moved by their story
44 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
that he released them, and abandoned the practice of
animal sacrifice. Janna's style is highly praised for its
grace and dignity.
Bandhiivaryna^ who belonged to the Vaisya caste,
published (besides the Harivamsabhyudaya) a well-
written book on Morals and Renunciation. It is entitled
Jiva Sarnbodhana, because addressed to the jiva or soul.
The two poets, Parsva-pandita and Giinavarnia II,
lived at the court of the Saundatti rajas.
Earliest Sangatya. Sisicniayana (c. 1232) was the
earliest poet to write in sahgatya, a form of composi-
tion which afterwards came into much vogue. It is
especially intended to be intoned to the accompaniment
of a musical instrument. He wrote two books in this
style — Anjana-charitre, representing a portion of
Ravishena's Sanskrit Pad?na-charitra; and Tripura-
dahajia, the " Burning of the Triple Fortress," an
allegorical poem in which Birth, Decay and Death form
the " triple fortress " destroyed.
Andayya (c. 1235) was the author of a work in
champu usually known as the Kabbigara Kava (" Poets
Defender "), but also called Sobagina Suggi ("Harvest
of Beauty"), Madana-vijaya and Kd,vana-Gella ("Cupid's
Conquest"). The special literary interest of the work
is that it is written from beginning to end without the
use of a single unnaturalised {tatsama) Sanskrit word,
the vocabulary consisting entirely of tadbhava (natura-
lised Sanskrit) and desya (indigenous) words. It was
written at the suggestion of scholars for the express
purpose of showing that this could be done ; but the
example has not been followed since. The subject is the
victory of Cupid. Angry with Siva, who had imprison-
ed the Moon, he assailed him with his arrows, but was
cursed by Siva to be separated from his bride ; but he
found means to get release from the curse, and to
rejoin his bride.
Mallikarjuna (c. 1245) was brother-in-lavv to Janna,
and father of the Kesiraja who wrote the Sabdamani-
darpana. He was a muni and lived in the time of the
Hoysala king, Vira Somesvara (1234-1254). He com-
JAINA LITERATURE 45
piled the Sukti-Sudh^rnava, called also the Kdvya-sara,
a sort of "Gems from the Poets" — a very useful
collection of verses from all previous poets, arranged
under eighteen topics, such as descriptions of the sea,
the mountains, the city, the seasons, the moonlight, the
dawn, friendship, love, war, etc. It contains extracts
from works otherwise lost. Only fifteen out of the
eighteen chapters have as yet been found. He does
not give the names of the poets quoted, but eighteen
of them have been traced. A later Kavya-sara,
" Selections from the Poets," was compiled in 1533 by
Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda (see p. 47).
Kesiraja (c. 1260) was author of the well-known
standard grammar, Sabdamanidarpana (on which see
below, p. 111). He came of a very literary family, being
the son of Mallikarjuna, the nephew of Janna, and on
his mother's side the grandson of another poet,
Sahkara or Sumanobana, priest of the Yadava capital,
whose works are lost.
Kuvuideyidzi (c. 1275) wrote the Kumudendti Rania-
ya7ia, in shatpadi metre (see p. 59). It follows the
Jaina tradition, and is largely influenced by the Parnpa
Ramayana. No perfect copy, however, has yet been found.
Rafta-kavi (c. 1300), who was the lord of some Jaina
town, is of interest because he wrote a quasi-scientific
work, entitled Ratfa Mata or Ratta Sutra, on natural
phenomena, such as rain, earthquakes, lightning,
planets and omens. It was translated into Telugu by
Bhaskara, a Telugu poet of the fourteenth century.
Nagaraja (c. 1331) wrote in champu PmiyaSrava,
fifty-two tales of Puranik heroes, illustrative of the
duties of a householder. They are said to be transla-
tions from Sanskrit.
Maiigaraja I (c. 1360) wrote a book on medicine,
called Khagendra Maiii-darpana, in which he quotes
Pujyapada's work on medicine, of the fifth century.
UNDER THE RAJAS OF VIJAYANAGAR (1336-1610)
Competition with Lingayats and Vaishnavas. Dur-
ing the Vijayanagar Period, the Jainas had to compete
4
46 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
with Lingayats and Vaishnavas, both of whom were
now increasing in numbers and influence. Often debates
took place in the presence of the kings between the
rival religionists. As early as 1368 the Jainas com-
plained of persecution by the Vaishnavas ; and the king
Bukka Raya, doubtless under the advice of his eminent
minister, Vidyatirtha Madhavacharya, made them com-
pose their quarrel, and decreed that each party should
practise its religion with equal freedom. Copies of this
degree are still extant. Nevertheless, the influence of
the Jainas was steadily waning.
Lives ol Jaina Saints. A large proportion of their
writings continued to be the lives of Tirthahkaras,
and of other devout and exemplary Jainas. The
following are lives of Tirthankaras belonging to this
time :
A.D. Author Name of Purana No. of Tirthankara
1385 Madhura Dharmanatha 15
1508 Mangarasa Nemi-Jinesa 22
1519 ^antiklrti ^antinatha 16
1550 Doddayya Chandraprabha 8
1578 Doddananka „ 8
Madhura was court-poet of Harihara of Vijayanagar,
whose prime minister was his patron. Besides the
above work, he wrote a short poem in praise of
Gommatesvara of Sravana Belgola. Although he
belonged to the fourteenth century, he wrote in the
scholarly style of the earlier Jaina poets. Mangarasa
was a general of rank. He wrote several works
containing stories of Jaina princes.
The life of a pious prince, named Jivandhara-raja,
appears to have been a favourite subject with the
writers of this time. His story was reproduced from
the Sanskrit, and told three times over in shatpadi —
by Bhaskara of Penugon<^a (1424), Bommarasa of
Terakanambi (c. 1485), and Kotesvara of Tuluva-desa
(c. 1500). Another hero-saint was Naga-kumara, a
wealthy man who learned to despise riches, and devot-
ed himself to a religious life. His story was told by
Bahubali of Sringeri (c. 1560).
JAINA LITERATURE 47
Poets of the Tuluva Country. The next four poets
were all from the country below the Western Ghats.
It is worth noting that it was during this period that the
two colossal Jaina statues in that part of the country were
erected — that at Karkala in 1431 , and that at Yenur in 1603.
In 1533 Abhinava Vadi Vtdyananda of Gersoppa
(Bhallataki-pura), an able lecturer and disputant, who
championed Jainism both at Vijayanagar and at many
of the provincial capitals, compiled the Kavya-sdra, an
anthology of passages on forty-five different subjects
from previous poets. It is similar to Mallikarjuna's
Sukti-sudlmrriava. As he gives the names of many of
the poets, who range from 900-1430, this collection is
very useful.
Salva (c. 1550), court poet of a prince named Salva-
malla, ruling a city in the Konkan, wrote a Jaina
version of the Bharata known as the Sdlva BMrata. It
was, perhaps, intended to compete with the Krishia
Raya Bharata, which had been finished not long before,
as he bids his readers not to listen to faulty versions, but
to follow this pure Jaina narrative. It is in shatpadi,
and arranged in sixteen parvas, which differ from those
of the Brahmanical version.
Ratndkara-varni , a Kshatriya of Mudabidire, was the
writer of several works. His Triloka-^ataka, written
in 1557, gives an account of the universe (heaven, hell
and intermediate worlds) as conceived by Jainas. His
Aparajita-sataka discourses of morals, renunciation
and religious philosophy. His largest work, Bharat-
Hvara-charitre, tells the legendary story of the emperor
Bharata, who, according to Jainas, was the son of the
first Tirthahkara, and became a Jaina yati. Many
songs by this author, on moral and doctrinal subjects,
are current among Jainas, under the name of Annagala-
pada, " Songs of the Brothers."
NSmayina, also of the Tuluva country, wrote in 1559
the Jnana-bhaskara-charite, in which he urges that
contemplation and the study of the Sastras are far
more valuable for the attainment of emancipation than
either outward rites or austerities.
48 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
Another poet deserving of mention is Ayata-varma,
the author of the Kannac^a Rahia-karandaka (" Casket
of Jewels"), a champu rendering from the Sanskrit
work of the same name, giving a useful account of the
beliefs and duties of Jainas, under the heads of the
three Jaina "jewels" — right belief, right knowledge,
and right conduct. His date is uncertain. He is
conjecturally placed by Mr. Narasimhacharya at about
1400.
IV
THE RISE OF LINGAYATISM
A.D. 1160
Namas tunga-Hras-chumbi-chayidra-chClviara-chdrave
Trailokya-nagar-dramb ha-?nula-stamb hciya-Sanib have .
"Adoration to Sambhit (Siva), adorned with the moon
lightly resting like a royal plume upon his lofty head — to Him
who is the foundation pillar for the building of the City of the
Three Worlds." This, the opening verse of Bana's Harsha-
charita, is usually placed at the commencement of Saiva
inscriptions.
THE LINGAYAT OR VIRASaIVA RELIGION
The Lirigayats are found chiefly in the Kanarese
and Telugu countries. They constitute thirty-five per
cent, of the total Hindu population in the Belgaum,
Bijapur, and Dharwar districts ; and ten per cent, in
the Mysore and Kolhaptir States. They call them-
selves Sivachars and Virasaivas. The latter name
("stalwart Saivas ") distinguishes them from the
three other classes of Saivas, viz. the Samanya-,
Misra-, and Suddha-Saivas. The first two of these
classes worship Vishnu as well as Siva ; the Suddha-
and Vira- Saivas worship Siva exclusively. That which
distinguishes the Virasaivas from the Suddha-Saivas,
and is their most distinctive peculiarity, is the wearing
always, somewhere on the person, of a linga, i.e. a small
black cylindrical stone, representing the phallus, but
symbolic of the deity. This is worn by both men and
women, and is generally kept in a silver or wooden
reliquary {karadige) suspended from the neck. The
50 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
Jangamas, or Lingayat "religious," wear it on their
head. The investiture with the linga is the most sacred
rite of childhood. The lihga is taken out and held in
the palm of the hand for worship, but must on no account
be parted with throughout life. Lihgayats are strictly
vegetarian in diet, and on this account all other castes,
except Brahmans, will eat food cooked by them. As
they do not admit Brahman claims to pre-eminence,
there is hostility or aloofness between them and
Brahmans. Basava, indeed, taught that men of all
castes, and even outcastes, were eligible to enter the
Lingayat community.
Other peculiarities are that they do not cremate
their dead, but bury them ; and that they permit the
remarriage of widows ; and that every Lingayat is
connected with some monastery.^
The scriptures of the religion are in Sanskrit, and
consist of the twenty-eight Saivagamas, the earlier
portions of which are said to be applicable to all Saivas,
and the later portions to relate especially to Virasaivas.
There is also an ancient Sanskrit work, called ^iva-
gttd, to which a high place is given. By the unlearned
the Basava- purdna and Chaii7iabasava-purll7ia are
treated as authorities for their religion ; but the learned
do not give them this place.
The leading doctrines and practices of the Virasaiva
religion are summed up in the technical terms, ashtava-
ra7m?n, the "eight environments," or aids to faith and
protections against sin and evil ; and shatsthala, the
six stages of salvation. As these terms are peculiar
to Lingayats, and continually recur in their literature
and in the titles of their books, it is desirable to explain
their meaning.
The ashtAvaranam, or aids to faith, are: (1) Obedi-
ence to a guru\ (2) Worship of a lihga; (3) Rever-
ence for the jaiigama as for an incarnation of §iva ;
(4) The devout use of ashes {vibhuli) made of cowdung,
* See further Farquhar's Outline of the Religious Literature
oi India, pp. 259-64.
THE RISE OF LINGAYATISM 51
which are supposed to have great cleansing and
sanctifying power ; (5) Wearing of a necklace, or
rosary, of rudraksha (seeds of the Eleocarpits) , sacred
to Siva and a charm of supposed spiritual efficacy ;
(6) Padodaka, the washing in, or drinking of, water in
which the feet of a guru or jahgama have been bathed ;
(7) Prasada, the presentation of food to a guru, lihga
or jangama, and eating sacramentally what is left ;
(8) Panchakshara, the utterance of the five-syllabled
ioxn\\\\2i naniah ^ivaya ("Obeisance to Siva"). With
the sacred syllable Om prefixed, it is also called shad-
akshara (six syllabled). Nowadays all these eight
safeguards are often combined into a single sacramental
ritual at the initiation of a Lihgayat child soon after
birth.
The Shatsthala, or six stages of approximation
towards union with the deity (Siva), are termed
bhakti, viaheia, prasada, prd7iali?iga, iarana and aikya,
the last being absorption into the deity.
The word Sthala is also used to denote the eternal,
impersonal, divine entity (also called ^iva-tattva),
which manifests itself further as Linga-sthala (the
personal deity to be worshipped) and Aiiga-sthala
(the individual soul or worshipper) . The three degrees
of manifestation of the deity are sometimes described
as the Bhdva-linga, PrUna-liiiga and Ishta-linga, the
first corresponding to spirit, the second to the life or
subtile body, and the third to the material body or
stone-liriga.
Reverence is paid to sixty-three ancient saints, called
pnratayias, mentioned also in the Tamil Pcriya-pHra?ia?H
and 770 later or mediaeval saints {?mtana-puratana) .
Of the former, although all are Saivas, only eight are
Virasaivas. Among the later saints are included Basava
and his chief disciples. Manikka Vachakar, the famous
Tamil mystic (c. 900), is claimed as one of them, and
said to be identical with a Manikayya mentioned among
the Saiva saints in the Channabasava-Purdna.
Lihgayatism was the state religion of the early
Wo(^eyars of Mysore and of Umma^iir from 1399-1610,
52 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
and of the Nayaks of Keladi (Ikkeri or Bednur) from
1550-1763. Their principal juafha in the Mysore
country is at Chitaldrug.
BASAVA AND THE EARLY APOSTLES OF
LINGAYATISM
Basava, the reputed founder of the Lihgayat faith,
but really only one of its revivers and propagandists,
was an Aradhya Brahman. According to the traditional
account he was the son of Madiraja and Madalambike.
He was born at Bagavadi in the Kaladgi district, but
was taken to reside at Kappadi, at the junction of the
Malaprabha and the Krishna, where there is a shrine
dedicated to Siva under the name of Sahgamesvara,
" Lord of the Confluence." Here he is said to have
become conscious of a call to revive the Virasaiva faith.
His first wife was the daughter of his maternal uncle,
the prime minister of Bijjala, the Kalachuri king, who
ruled at Kalyana, 1156-1167. When his father-in-law
died, Basava was invited to succeed him as prime
minister. The Jainas say that Basava owed his position
and influence largely to his having a very beautiful
sister, Padmavati, whom the king became enamoured
with and married ; and that the king gave himself up
to the charms of his bride and left the reins of power
in his minister's hands. Basava had another sister,
Nagalambike, who had a son named Channabasava. In
concert with him Basava began to propound his new
doctrine and new mode of worshipping Siva. He
speedily gained a large number of followers, and
appointed many priests, who were called Jahgamas.
Having charge of the king's treasury, he spent large
amounts in supporting these Jangamas. Bijjala had
another minister, a Brahman, named Manchanna, who
vigorously opposed Basava, and accused him of em-
bezzlement. The king tried to arrest Basava ; but he
fled, and, being joined by numerous adherents, defeated
the king, who was compelled to reinstate him in all his
dignities. There was, however, no real reconciliation.
THE RISE OF LINGAYATISM 53
Of what followed there are varying accounts. The
Lihgayat account is that the king, having wanted to
put out the eyes of two Lihgayat devotees, Basava
pronounced a curse upon Kalyana, and directed one of
his disciples to slay the king ; and that he then fled to
Sahgamesvara, and was " absorbed into the Lihga "
(i.e. died) there. The Jaina version is that when the
king was returning from a military expedition, and was
encamped on the bank of the Bhima River, Basava
sent him a poisoned fruit, and then fled to Ulavi, at
the foot of the Western Ghats, where he was besieged
by the king's son, and in despair threw himself into
a well.^
An inscription at Manargoli (eleven miles north-west
of Bagavadi) of the sixth year (1161) of Bijjala, records
a grant to a temple which a Basava had erected there.
It gives his lineage, mentioning his father, Chandiraja,
and mother, Gangambike, as residing at Manargoli. It
speaks of Basava in very high terms as "without an
equal in devotion to Siva," and as the "virtuous father
of the world " who had brought fame to the village.
This seems to refer to the Apostle of Lihgayatism ;
but no mention is made of his exaltation to the position
of prime minister.
Myths afterwards gathered round Basava's name,
and later generations regarded him as an incarnation of
Nandi, the vehicle of Siva, and as having worked
numerous and wonderful miracles. All these things
will be found written in the Basava-purdiia (1369), the
Mala Basava-7'llja-charitre (c. 1500), the VrishabhSndra
Vijaya (1671), and other works.
To Basava are attributed some prose works exposi-
tory of the Lihgayat faith, viz. Shai-sthala-vachana,
* The Jaina account is found in the Bijjala-rdja-charitre
(c. 1650); the Lingayat account in the Basava-purana (1369).
A later Lingayat account, in the Channabasava-purdna (1584)
absolves Basava from any part in the king's death ; but this
looks like an apologetic afterthought. A source of information
nearer to the time of the occurrences than any of these should
be the Telugu Basava-purana of Palkurike Soma (c. 1195), if it
is extant.
54 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
or " Discourses on the Six Stages of Salvation "; Kala-
jnana-vacha?ia, " Forecasts of the Future "; Ma?itra-
goPya, Ghatachakra-vachana and Raja-yoga-vacha?ia.
Other Apostles of Ling^Lyatism. As the chief credit
of the Lingayat Revival has been universally attributed
to Basava, it may be well to state briefly the evidence
which shows that he was only one of a number of
persons to whom it was due.
(i) Several of his personal associates are expressly
named. The chief of these was Channabasava. Even
in the tradition itself, Channabasava is represented as,
in some respects, superior to his uncle. In him the
pranava, or sacred syllable Om, is said to have become
incarnate, to teach the doctrine of the Virasaiva faith
to Basava ; and whereas Basava is represented as an
incarnation of Nandi, Channabasava was 6iva himself.
As Basava must have been much occupied with affairs
of State, the religious portion of the movement may
have been, from the beginning, largely under Channa-
basava's direction. It appears that when, after his
uncle's death, he was readmitted to the royal favour,
he became the acknowledged leader.
Other leading associates of Basava were Madivala
Machayya, Prabhudeva and Siddharama. Of these the
last-named is mentioned as having made a tank and
consecrated many lihgas at Sonnalige. Of all these
early apostles of Lifigayatism wonderful stories are
told, which are the subjects of the Chanriabasava-piirajia
(1585), the Madivalayya-sHngatya, the Prablmlinga-llle
(c. 1430), the SiddhardTna-purdna (c. 1165), and other
works.
(ii) Frequent mention is made in Lingayat writings
of Five Acharyas, whose names are Revana (or
Renuka), Marula-siddha, Panditaradhya (or Malli-
karjuna), Ekorami-tande (or Ekorama) and Visvesvar-
acharya. The first and third of these belonged to
the Telugu country — Revana to Kollipaka (midway
between Warangal and Golkonda), and Panditaradhya to
Vengi. Both of these, as well as Ekorama, must have
been contemporaries of Basava. For it is related of
THE RISE OF LINGAYATISM 55
Panc^itaradhya that, after having championed the
Virasaiva cause at the Chola court, he was on his way
to visit Basava when he heard of the latter's death.
Of Ekorama it is said that he converted Bijjala's
queen ; and of Revana that he was the instructor of
Siddharama. The previous incarnations of these
acharyas, referred to in the Basava-purapa, may be
dismissed as fabulous.
(iii) An inscription of about 1200 at Ablur in the
Dharwar district records the doings of one, Ekanta
Ramayya, an ardent worshipper of Siva, who defeated
the Jainas in controversy and displaced their temple by
a temple to Siva. He is said to have effected this by
laying a wager that he would cut oflE his own head, and
that it would be restored seven days later by the grace
of Siva. Bijjala, hearing of this miracle, summoned
him to court, and gave him gifts of land for the Abliir
temple. As these events are placed shortly before 1162,
he must have been a contemporary of Basava, but
Basava is not named. In the Basava-pura7ia, however,
which was written 200 years later, it is said that
Basava himself was present when the wager was made.
It is to be noted that even the sasana is thirty-three
years later than the alleged miracle.'^
(iv) There were in connection with the court of one
of the Ballal rajas, three Saiva poets, Harisvara,
Raghavahka and Kereya Padmarasa. (See pp. 60, 62.)
There has been some difficulty in fixing the particular
Ballal raja under whom they lived ; but Mr. Narasimha-
charya has given reason to show that it was probably
Narasimha I (1141-1173). If so, they must have been
contemporaries of Basava. But they make no reference
to him, and must have drawn their inspiration from
some other source.
From these considerations it seems probable that
the Virasaiva movement had already been for some
time in progress before Basava ; and that the pro-
^ See Epigraphia Indica, v. (1899), Indian Antiquary, xxx.
(1901), and Bhandarkar's VaisAnavism, Saivism and Minor
Religious Systems, pp. 131-40.
56 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
minence which his name has received is clue chiefly to
the fact that it was his influence at court which gave
the movement the political opportunity that led to its
rapid dissemination in the Kanarese districts.
THE VACHANA LITERATURE
The Lingayat propaganda was aided by a large
number of writers who flooded the country with tracts
commending the new creed. These tracts are called
Vacha7ias, or " Sentences," and form a unique feature of
Lingayat literature. They are in easily intelligible
(sometimes even alliterative) prose, requiring no
learning to understand. To this fact is doubtless due,
in considerable measure, the popularity of the move-
ment. We may perhaps compare the effect produced
in England in the fourteenth century by Wycliffe and
his preachers and MS. Gospels. In form, the vachanas
are brief disconnected paragraphs, each ending with one
or another of the numerous local names under which
Siva is worshipped. In style, they are epigrammatical,
parallelistic and allusive. They dwell on the vanity of
riches, the valuelessness of mere rites or book-
learning, the uncertainty of life, and the spiritual
privileges of the Siva-bhakta. They call men to give
up the desire for worldly wealth and ease, to live lives
of sobriety and detachment from the world, and to turn
to Siva for refuge. They are seldom controversial, but
almost entirely hortatory, devotional and expository.
They are still recited by Lingayat acharyas for the
instruction of their followers.
Some of the vachanas have a section called kala-
JTiana, which gives a forecast of the future. These
portions speak of the coming of an ideal king, named
Vira Vasanta Raya, by whom Kalyana will be rebuilt
and the Lifigayat religion come to its full glory.
The vachana literature began in the time of Basava,
to whom are attributed six works of this sort ; and it
continued to be produced through the next three or four
centuries. Only a few of the vachanas can be accurately
THE RISE OF LINGAYATISM 57
dated, a great number being anonymous. In these
cases one author is distinguishable from another only
by the divine name which he invokes. Many of the
tracts bear identical titles, the most common of which
is Shai-sthala-vachana.
Specimens of the Vachanas
By Basava
Oh pay your worship to God now — before the cheek turns
wan, and the neck is wrinkled, and the body shrinks — before the
teeth fall out, and the back is bowed, and you are wholly depen-
dent on others — before you need to lean on a staff, and to raise
yourself by your hands on your thighs — before your beauty is
destroyed by age, and Death itself arrives. Oh, now worship
Kiidala-sangama-deva.
Those who have means will not devote them to the building
of a temple to God (Siva). Then I, though a poor man, will
build Thee one, O Lord. My legs shall be the pillars, my body
the shrine, my head the golden finial. Hearken, O Kudala-
sangama-deva ! The fixed temple of stone will come to an end ;
but this movable temple of the spirit will never perish.
The leg does not tire of walking, the eye of seeing, the
hand of working. The tongue does not weary of singing ; the
head does not ache with the binding of the hair ; nor does the
mind of man desist from desire. Neither shall my heart weary
of worshipping and serving Thee, O Kiidala-sangama-deva.
By Urilinga-peddi (c. 1180)
Camphor, when touched by fire, itself turns to flame. Salt
immersed in water is dissolved into water itself. So the disciple
who companions with the True Guru becomes such as the Guru
himself. " Like seed, like shoot," is a true saying. ViSvegvara
knows— he who is dear to Urilinga-peddi.
By Mahadevi-akka
(Of whom it is told that the lord of her city wished to wed
her, but she spurned his advances, renounced the pleasures of the
world, and went to Kalyana and joined the companions of
Basava.)
What sort of a man is he who, having built his house on the
mountain, is afraid of the wild beasts there ? or, having built it
58 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
on the seashore, is alarmed by the roar of the surf ? or, If he
live in the market street, cannot bear the noise of the traffic ?
Then seeing we have been born into the world as it is, we must
not be afraid of its praise or its blame, but abstain from passion,
and rest unperturbed. Hear my prayer, O Mallikarjuna-deva.
By Swatantra Siddhalingesvara (c. 1480)
How sadly they fall who are bewitched by the harlot Desire !
Be they ministers or monks, be they scholars or saints, inhabitants
of earth or dwellers in heaven, she makes them all to hanker after
riches. Who is able to resist her enchantments ? Only those
who have found a refuge in the True Guru, Swatantra Slddha-
lingeSvara. All others she makes to dance at her will.
LINGAYAT WRITERS
FROM 1160-1600
Transition from Ancient to Mediaeval Kanarese.
Whatever the explanation may be, it is a striking
fact that the early Lirigayat period was marked by
important changes both in grammatical usage and in
literary form. The letter la was entirely dropped, and
its place taken by (a or the half-letter r. The letter pa
at the commencement of a word and in verbal forms
was changed to ha. And there was a negligence in the
observance of the rules of syntax and of rhyme {prasa),
which is in marked contrast with the precision of the
early Jaina poets. The hitherto dominant champu
form of composition, though it still continued to be used
by scholars, fell more and more into desuetude. All
the metres hitherto used had been those which occur in
Sanskrit ; but at this time new and purely Kanarese
metres were introduced. These are especially the
shaipadi (six-lined stanzas), the tripadi (three-lined
stanzas), and the ragales (lyrical compositions with
refrains). The first to use shatpadi was Raghavanka
(c. 1165). He was followed, a hundred years later, by
the Jaina Kumudendu (c. 1275). A hundred years later
still, this metre was adopted in the Basava-purana
(1369) and the Padmaraja-purana (c. 1385). It thence-
forward became the most common metre of all later
works, whether Lingayat or Vaishnava. Another
literary form which dates from this period is the
sdngatya, which appears first in 1232. It became very
common after the middle of the fifteenth century.
60 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
LINGAYAT WRITERS IN THE TIME OF THE
LATER BALLAL RAJAS (1160-1310)
After Bijjala's death the northern part of the Kana-
rese country (Kuntala) was thrown into disorder. The
Kalachuri dynasty succumbed to the Yadavas of Deva-
giri, whose interests were with the Marathi language.
Most of the Kanarese country fell under the sway of
the Ballal rajas, whose capital was at Dorasamudra
(Halebid). We now proceed to give an account of the
chief Lifigayat authors (other than Vachana writers)
who lived in the time of these sovereigns.
The earliest is Harisvara, called also Harihara, who
was for a time chief revenue accountant of Halebi^ under
Narasiiiiha Ballala. He lived for many years under the
shadow of the Virupaksha temple at Hampe, and there
he wrote his works. His first was a lengthy book in
lyrical (ragale ) form, in praise of the sixty-three puratanas
and other early Saiva saints. It is known as ^iva-ganada-
ragale, or from the name of the first saint, Natnbiyafi-
nana-ragale. He afterwards composed the Girija-
kalyana, or " Legend of the Marriage of Siva and
Parvati," which gained much popularity. It is written
elegantly in the old Jaina style, and is highly praised
by all subsequent Lihgayat writers. He also wrote
Pampa-iatakam, a cento in praise of Virupaksha of
Hampe.
R^ghav^nka was a nephew and disciple of Harisvara.
He was born and lived at Hampe ; but he visited and
won triumphs at the courts of D5rasamudra and Waran-
gal, and spent the last years of his life at Belur in the
Hassan district. He wrote Harikhandra-kavya, the
legend of the inflexible truthfulness of kingHarischandra.
It is said that his uncle, Harisvara, was displeased at
his having written the praises of a Vaishnava king,
and to make amends he wrote his other works, of
which the chief are So7nanlltha-charitre, the history of
Somayya of Puligere, whose boast was that he had
crushed the Jainas, and compelled them to admit a
Siva image into a Jaina temple ; Siddharama-purHna,
LINGAYAT writers 61
the history of Siddharama of Sonnalige (See p. 54) ; and
Harihara-mahatva, in praise of Harisvara of Hampe.
As already mentioned, he was the first to write in
shatpadi, the form of verse which afterwards became
so popular. An account of him, entitled Raghavaiika-
charitre, was written by Siddha-nafijesa in the seven-
teenth century.
Kcrcya Padmarasa received his proenomen " Kereya"
(tank-builder) through having caused to be made the
Belur tank. He was minister of the Ballal raja
Narasimha. When he had retired for some time from
this oifice, and was residing at Belur, he was summoned
back to the capital to withstand a Telugu Brahman,
who had come to D5rasamudra preaching Vaishnavism.
Travelling thither with a company of learned men
reciting Saiva texts, he reached the capital, and so
triumphantly vindicated the Virasaiva faith that, accord-
ing to the contract, his opponent had to embrace it.
Then he set out, via Hampe, on a pilgrimage to
Benares, where he died. He wrote Diksha-bodhe, a
volume in ragale representing a colloquy in which a
guru instructs a disciple and occasionally quotes San-
skrit slokas in confirmation of Saiva doctrine. He is
the hero of the Padmamja-pjirana, written by ope of
his descendants about 1385.
On the date of Harisvara, Raghavarika and Kereya
Padmarasa, see above p. 55.
Kumdra Padmarasa, the son of the last-named
writer, was the author of the Sananda-charitre, which
tells how a rishi's son, hearing of the torments of the
lost in hell, attempted to relieve their suffering by the
power of the pane haks hart.
P^kurike Soma (c. 1195) was a learned scholar
born at Palkurike in the Godavari district. After
defeating in controversy the Vaishnava sastris there,
he moved to Kalleya in the Kanarese country, where,
both in prose and verse, he praised Basava and the
Virasaiva faith, and where ultimately he died. His
date is fixed by the fact that he is praised by Somaraja
(1222); and moreover, according to one account, he
5
62 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
was the son of a disciple of Basava. A Telugu Basava-
purdtia by him was used by Bhima-kavi in the prepara-
tion of his Kanarese Basava-purana. His Kanarese
writings include the ^aranu-basava-ragale (108 Kandas),
the ^ila-sa7npadana (a list of the 64 virtues of Vira-
saivas), Sadguru-ragale and Channabasava-stotrada-
ragale. He is the subject of the Palknrike SomeSvara
Purana by Virakta T5ntadarya (c. 1560).
Somesvara-sataka. Some doubt exists as to the
authorship of the SomeSvara-iataka^ a popular and
widely-read cento of verses on moral subjects. It has
by some been attributed to Palkurike Soma. But Mr.
Narasimhacharya says that the work is so loose and
faulty, in grammar and style, that it could scarcely have
been written by one who, like that scholar, was acquaint-
ed with Sanskrit. He also points out that Lihgayats
themselves do not include it in the list of writings by
Palkurike Soma. Besides which, the author never calls
himself Palkurike Soma, but implies that he belonged
to Puligere (Lakshmesvar). The date of Puligere
Soma is not certainly known, but he may have belonged
to this period.
Stanzas from the SomeSvara I^ataka
By Puligere Soma. A.D. 1200. {?)
[As the refrain is capable of being construed in two
ways, I have given different renderings of it in alternate
verses. Hara and SomeSvara (or SomeSa) are names of
^iva.]
Some facts from professors are learnt,
And some by the gastras are taught ;
Some lore is the fruit of observing,
And some is arrived at by thought ;
And converse with wise men gives insight ;
And thus to ripe knowledge one's brought.
Many drops coalescing make rivers ;
From rivers the ocean is wrought.
Be Hara, great Hara, adored —
Some§vara, glorious Lord. (2)
The sun like a jewel adorneth the sky,
The moon like a jewel the night ;
LINGAYAT WRITERS 63
An heir is the cherished gem of the home,
The gems of the lake are the lotuses bright :
The sacrifice' crown is th' oblation of ghee,
The crown of a wife is her sweet chastity ;
And that which adorneth the court of a king
Is the presence of poets, fit praises to sing.
To thee, O SomeSa, I bow ;
Death's mighty Destroyer art thou. (18)
The moon, though It sometimes is slender,
Will swell to full roundness again ;
The seed of the banyan, though tender.
May become greatest tree of the plain ;
The puniest calf to a bullock will grow ;
The green fruit will ripen in time ;
And so, by the favour of heaven,
The poorest to riches may climb.
Be Hara, great Hara, adored —
SomeSvara, glorious Lord. (45)
What avails it to scrub at your skin,
If within you are full of foul mire .-'
Can the wicked man, clinging to sin,
By bathing cleanse sinful desire ?
Why, the crows and the buffaloes bathe :
If to cleanse their beast nature — how vain !
Steep bitter nim fruit in sugar-cane juice :
Yet it never will sweetness attain.
To thee, O vSomeSa, I bow ;
Death's mighty Destroyer art thou. (64)
Who waters the forest unbounded ?
On whose strength do the vast mountains rest ?
And earth, air, fire, water and ether —
Who but Thou dost with vigour invest ?
Thou alone are upholder of all things that be ;
And mortals are nought ; they subsist but in Thee.
Be Hara, great Hara, adored^
SomeSvara, glorious Lord. (43)
Two Romances. Two authors of this period call for
mention as having written books of romance.
Deva-kavi (c. 1200) wrote the Kusiimdvali in
champu. Like the Lilavatl of Nemichandra, it is the
story of a prince and a princess who fall in love with
one another's portraits, and after many days' search
meet and are wedded,
64 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
Somaraja (1222), apparently a ruling prince, pro-
bably of the Chauta rajas on the West Coast, who had
embraced Lingayatism, wrote ^riiigara-rasa, called also
Udbhata-kavya. Its hero, Udbhata, the ruler of Ger-
soppa (Bhallataki-pura), slays a demon which had been
hindering a rishi's sacrifice ; he then marries the daughter
of a Chola king ; and in scorn of the thought of going
unaccompanied to Kailasa, like another whom he sees,
he lays a wager to take the entire population of the city
with him thither.
LINGAYAT LITERATURE UNDER THE VIJAYANAGAR
KINGS (1336-1600)
In the time of the Vijayanagar kings who, during
two and a half centuries exercised the chief sway in the
Kanarese country, literature was being produced by the
followers of three religions. The principal Jaina
writers have already been mentioned. The Vaishnava
writers will be noticed in a later chapter. An account
will here be given of the Lihgayat writers only. To
enumerate them all would require much more space
than this little book can aflford. The chief writings may
be classified under two heads — Stories of Virasaiva
Reformers and Devotees, and Expositions of Lihgayat
doctrine.
Stories of Virasaiva Reformers and Devotees. No
religion can make way among the common people if its
doctrines are stated only in abstract terms. They must
be presented also in the form of biographies, as lived out
in the actual experience of men. Therefore, as the
Jainas wrote lives of the Tirthahkaras, the Lihgayats
wrote lives of eminent §iva-bhaktas.
The first work of importance, belonging to this class,
was the Basava Purina, written in the sliatpadi metre
by Bhima-kavi, an Aradhya Brahman of whose personal
life little is known. The book was completed in 1369.
It speedily became, and has since remained, a very
popular book among Lihgayats. Among the authorities
on which it is based is mentioned a Telugu work of the
same name by Palkurike Soma.
LINGAYAT writers 65
It professes to tell the story of the life of Basava;
who, however, is now represented as an incarnation of
Nandi, Siva's inseparable vehicle, and as especially
sent to re-establish the Virasaiva faith upon earth.
The bulk of the book is taken up with the wonderful
miracles Basava performed. The book is an interesting
and typical illustration of the mythopoetic tendency,
which shows itself more or less in all religions. The
method seems to be this. First, a sectarian boast is
made in highly hyperbolical terms — such as, that
Basava' s word is so powerful that by it poison can be
converted into ambrosia, the dead restored to life,
irrational creatures enabled to confute learned men,
mountains can be moved, the sun made to stand still in
heaven, a tigress yield herself to be milked. Or else a
teaching is recorded in metaphorical language — such
as, that those of unclean castes and degrading pursuits
are sanctified by the performance, however mechanically,
of the powerful Saiva rites. And then, concrete stories
are invented to justify each of these statements. This
will give an idea of the kind of miracle {pavada) attri-
buted freely to Basava. Finally, Basava is represented
as being re-absorbed into the linga of the Siva temple
at Sahgamesvara.
"As a column of dust raised by the whirlwind arises from
the earth, and is lost upon the earth again ; as froth is produced
in mill< when it is churned, and subsides into milk again ; as the
lightning flash is born of the sky, and recedes into the sky again ;
as hailstones are produced by water, and melt into water again ;
so Basava came forth from the Guru and ultimately was re-
united with Him in everlasting rest." *
Illustrative Extract from the Basava Purana,
XI, 9-15. A.D. 1369
BASAVA AND THE KING'S TREASURE
Introductory Note. — Basava was in charge of king
Bijjala's treasury. Just before the time for paying the army, a
* An abridged English translation of the Basava Purana and
Channabasava Purana, by Rev. G. Wiirth, will be found in the
Journal of the Boynbay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for
1865-66.
66 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
Jangama came along and asked him for the treasure. Where-
upon the pious Basava gave him the whole. The king being
informed by Basava's opponents, severely reprimanded him, and
threatened him with instant dismissal. The poem then proceeds —
But nought perturbed was Basava ;
He calmly smiled and said : —
" Untold, O king, the wealth of him
Who worships ^iva great.
His is the stone Chintamani
Which finds him all he asks ;
And his the Cow of Paradise, —
The Kamadhenu famed ;
The Kalpa-vriksha too is his, —
Th' all-bounteous tree of Heaven ;
E'en Meru's golden mount is his :
No good thing can he lack.
What folly then to think that such
Can covet other's wealth !
Will bee that knows the lotus-bloom
A thistle seek instead ?
Will chakor bird, that has for food
The moon's ambrosial rays,
Exchange that heavenly banquet for
The dark of moonless night ?
Will cub of Indra's elephant
Suck teat of village sow ?
Will hafhsa-swan, that's free to drink
Of the boundless Sea of Milk,
Seek salt-sea water for its thirst ?
O Bijjala, bethink I
Or will tlie lion feed on herbs ?
Will parrot throw away
The mango's luscious fruit to eat
Insipid jungle nut ?
When these things hap, then may'st thou think
The !^iva-bhakta too
May cast his heaven-born treasure down
To steal man's petty gold.
Nay, let the earth reel 'neath our feet.
Great Sesha's head sink down ;
Quenclied be the raging fires of Hell,
Splintered the mountain's crown ;
Let moonlight lose its radiance soft ;
The sun rise in the west.
E'en then would he who Siva knows
Not covet other's pelf.
LINGAYAT WRITERS 67
Does he whose inmost mind doth glow
With heavenly radiance blest
Need man's poor earthen lamp to shed
For him its sickly gleam ?
With thought of Para-Siva's name
What sweetness can compare ?
Endowed with all the wondrous power
That Siva -knowledge gives,
I have command of all I wish.
Need I thy money, king ?
Dismiss the doubts that hold thy mind,
And this beside reflect —
That gold was never thine at all ;
'Twas Siva's — His alone.
Mindful of this, I gladly gave
It all to Siva Lord.
Yet, mark, O king ! if by my deed
Thou hast a farthing lost,
I've failed to prove a bhakta true.
Call for the chests and see."
So the boxes were brought ;
The contents were poured forth.
Oh the wonder the courtiers saw !
Not a farthing was short ;
The whole treasure was there !
'Twas most dazzling — that golden store.
The king beamed with delight
At the vision so bright,
And honoured Lord Basava more.
NoTK. — The above account of one of Basava's alleged
miracles, or " signs," shows the ease with which a narrative of
professed fact may have grown out of what at first was probably
only ethical teaching. It also reveals the consciousness of the
possession of valuable spiritual truth which doubtless formed an
important part of the dynamic of the Lingayat Revival.
Maha-Basava-raja-charitra is the name of another
account of Basava's life, written about 1500 by Singi-
raja, and sometimes called the Singi-raja-ptirana. It
recounts eighty-eight marvellous deeds of Basava, and
gives information about his opponents at Bijjala's
court.
Later works on the same subject, by Sha<^akshara-
deva (1671) and Marulusiddha(c. 1700) will be mentioned
in later chapters.
68 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
To about the same period as Bhima-kavi belongs
Padma7ianka, another Aradhya Brahman (c. 1385),
a descendant of Kere-Padmarasa. He wrote the
Padmar&ja-purAna, in which he extols the victory which
his ancestor of 200 years before had won, when he
confuted the advocates of other creeds, as related
on p. 61.
Prabhulihga, also called Allama-prabhu, is the hero
of the Prabhulinga-lile. He was an associate of Basava,
by whom he was made head of the Kalyana viatha
(monastery). He is regarded in this book as an incar-
nation of Ganapati, and it is related how Parvati, in
order to test the steadfastness of his detachment from
the world, incarnated a portion of herself in a princess
of Banavase to tempt him. The author is Chamarasa,
an Aradhya Brahman. He read his work at the court
of Praudha Deva Ray a (1419-1446) who highly honoured
him, and caused it to be translated into Telugu and
Tamil. Chamarasa was a valiant champion of the
Virasaivas, and held disputations with the Vaishnavas
in the presence of the king. He was a rival of Kumara
Vyasa, the author of the Kanarese Bharata, who had
married his sister.
More than a century later, in 1584, when the Vija-
yanagar court was now at Penukonda, Virupaksha Pan-
dita wrote the Ch^nna Basava Purana. Its hero, Channa-
basava, is regarded as an incarnation of Siva. The
work relates his birth, and his greatness at Kalyana ;
but is mostly taken up with the instruction he gave to
Siddharama of Sonnalige on the entire body of Vira-
saiva lore — the creation, the wonderful deeds {llle) of
Siva, the marvellous efficacy of Saiva rites, and stories
of Saiva saints. It has consequently been very popular
among Lingayat readers. It is also very useful to the
historian of Kanarese literature, because it gives much
help in determining the approximate dates of the early
Virasaiva saints and poets. The book closes with a
prophecy that Vira Vasanta Raya would come and rule
the Kanarese country in 1584, and rebuild and beautify
Kalyana. It thus identifies Vira Vasanta Raya with
LINGAYAT WRITERS
69
Vehkatapati Raya, who ascended the throne in that
year.^
There are also lives ol Ach^ryas and Purdtanas.
The most popular of the Acharyas was PanditAradhya.
His story had been already told by Palkurike Soma
both in Telugu and Kanarese, and by Guru-raja
(c. 1430) in Sanskrit. It was now retold in Kanarese
in the Aradhya-chai'itra of Nilakanthacharya of Ummatiir
(c. 1485) and by Mallikarjuna-kavi (1593) in a com-
mentary on Guru-raja's Sanskrit work. Revana Siddha,
another Acharya, had his story told before, not only in
Sanskrit, but also by Harisvara in Kanarese. It was
now retold in Mallanna's Revayia-Siddheivara-kdvya
(1413) and in Chaturmukha Bommarasa's Revana-
Siddhesvara- Parana (c. 1500). The latter author was
a disciple of a descendant of Revana. A later work,
Chaturasya-piirayia (1698) gives the lives of all the
Acharyas except Visvesvara.
Concerning the purdtanas we have the following :
Author
Date
Name of Work
Subject
Bommarasa . .
c. 1450
Saundara-purana
Nambiyanna
Nijagnna-yogi
C.1500
Puratanara-tripadi
63 puratanas
Suranga-k a v i
c. 1500
Trishashti-puratanara-
II
(of Puligere)
charitre (champu)
Gubbi Mallan-
1513
ViraSaivamrita-
Puratanas and
arya
purana
others
Virupa-raja . .
1519
Tribhuvana-tilaka
King
(sangatya)
Cheramanka
Kumara-
C.1550
Basava-p u r a n a d a-
Puratanas and
Channabasava
puratanara-charitre
others
Works expository of Virasaiva doctrine. Of the
numerous works of this character only a selection can
* Venkatapati Raya's father, Tirumala Raya, had done much
to restore the prestige of the dynasty after the disastrous defeat
of Talik(5ta and the fall of Vijayanagar. Among the many suc-
cesses which he claims in inscriptions is the defeat of the Rattas,
and he accordingly styles himself " Lord of Kalyanapura." This
fact is probably the ground of the poet's hopeful forecast. But
as a matter of fact, Kalyana remained in the territory of Bijapur
until that State was annexed by the Mughal Emperor. The pro-
phecy must be taken therefore as a piece of courtly flattery.
70 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
here be named. For the most part, commentaries on
Sanskrit works will not be mentioned at all.
The reign of Praudha Dcva fiAya (1419-1446) seems
to have been a time of much literary activity. Two of
his ministers were zealous in the propagation of
Lihgayat doctrine. One, named Lakkamia, wrote a
treatise on the beliefs and religious rites of the sect,
entitled Sivatattva-chbitiWiani, "Handbook of Saiva
Doctrine." Another, named Jakkamlrya, not only
himself wrote, or reproduced from the Sanskrit, a work
entitled Nuroyidu-sthala (" Hundred and One Topics "),
but spent large sums on the composition of Lingayat
works by other scholars. The chief of these scholars
were Kumara-bahka-natha and Mahalinga-deva. Both
of them were eminent gurus of the time ; and both
wrote Vachanas and books on the Shat-sthala. The
former also wrote a Sivatattva-chintclmaTii.
Guru Basava, another eminent guru, was the author
of seven works, called the Sapta-kavya (or " Seven
Classics "), all of which expounded religious teaching in
the form of colloquys between a guru and his disciple.
All are in shatpadi, except the Avadhilta-gtte, which
consists of songs in praise of detachment.
Mention is also frequently made of a hu?idred and
07ie Virakias, or teaching Jangamas, who lived during
the same king's time. Several of these wrote Vacha-
nas and works on the Shat-sthala. The principal were
Kalmatha Prabhudeva, who wrote in prose, and Kara-
sthala Nagideva.
There was great rivalry at the time between
Lihgayats and Vaishnavas. Each in turn organised
processions through the town in honour of the books
of their respective faiths. Chamarasa and Kumara
Vyasa, both mentioned elsewhere (pp. 68, 78), are
especially noticed as rivals. This rivalry is further
illustrated by the Praudha-rayacharitre of Adrisya
(c. 1595), which consists of stories of Saiva saints,
represented as told to this king by Jakkanarya in order
to turn his mind from listening to the Bharata, and to
convince him of the superiority of Lihgayatism.
LINGAYAT WRITERS 71
In the reign of Virupaksha (1467-1478) there lived
a guru named Tontada Siddhesvara or Siddhalinga-yati
who had a very large number of disciples and exercised
a wide influence. He derived his proenomen Tontada
("garden") from the circumstances that he long practis-
ed Siva-yoga in a garden on the bank of the Nagini
river near Kaggere. He was buried at Yediyui', near
Kunigal, where a 7yiatha was built in memory of him,
and where a temple in his honour still exists. All
succeeding Lihgayat writers speak his praise. He
wrote a prose work of 700 vachanas, entitled Shaisthala-
jna7iamrita. One of his vachanas has been quoted
above. Several of his disciples were authors of simi-
lar works. His history is recorded in the SiddheSvara-
purana by Virakta Tontadarya (c. 1560).
Nijaguna-siva-yogi lived at some time between 1250
and 1655. His date cannot at present be more accurate-
ly given, but he falls somewhere within the period
which we are considering. He was a great scholar and
a prolific writer. He was the ruler of the country
round Sambhulihga hill near Yelandur, and finally
retired to that hill and lived there as a Siva-yogi. In all
his works he extols Sambhulihga. He did not write,
like the others, in shatpadi, but employed tripadi,
sahgatya, ragale and prose. One work is a commen-
tary on the Sanskrit ^iva-yoga-pradlpika, written especi-
ally for the benefit of those ignorant of Sanskrit who
desire emancipation. But his best know work is the
Viveka-chi7iiama7ii, a very useful encyclopaedia of San-
skrit terms and Virasaiva lore.
Mallanirya of GubbI was a learned man who lived
in the reign of Krishna-deva-raya (1509-1529) . He wrote
both in Kanarese and Sanskrit. He is chiefly known
by two works. His Bhava-chi7ita.rat7ia (1513^ is a
reproduction in Kanarese shatpadi of a Tamil work by
Jiiana-sambandhar (Pillai Naynar) of the seventh cen-
tury. It is sometimes called the Satyeyidra-Chola-kathe,
because it tells a story of the Chola king which was
designed to illustrate the power of the panchaksharl.
The same story was, at a later date, elaborated in the
72 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
more famous Rajaiekhara of Shadakshara-deva (see
p. 84). The other work, Vira^aivCLnirita (1530), also
in shatpadi, gives a full statement of Lihgayat beliefs and
traditions, supporting its teaching by quotations from
the sacred books. It describes Siva's twenty-five liles{or
"sports ") and gives stories of the puratanas and their
successors. Like many other doctrinal works, it is put
in the form of instruction given by a guru to his
disciple.
ViruPa-raja and Vlrabhadra-raja were two writers
of princely lineage. The former has already been
mentioned (p. 69). Virabhadra-raja was his son, and
wrote five satakas on Virasaiva doctrine and morals.
At the close of this period I will place a poet whose
date is not yet decisively ascertained. This is Sarvajna-
murtii the composer of the Sarvajna-padagahi, very
popular verses in tripadi metre, embodying much
shrewd wisdom, and frequently quoted by the common
people. Sarvajiia is one of those poets whose artless
and casual verses so express the better thoughts, which
the common people feel but cannot express, that they
have become the property and favourites of all, and are
loved and quoted alike by ryot and tradesman and
wandering mendicant. His real name was Pushpadatta.
He tells us that he was the son of a Saiva Brahman of
Masiir, in the Dharwar district, by a widow named Mali,
whom his father met in a potter's house at Ambalur,
while he was on his way home from a pilgrimage to
Benares. About a thousand of his verses are current.
Various collections of these have been made. Of the
printed copies no two are exactly alike ; and these
probably include a few verses which imitators have
added later. The subjects, which are arranged under
47 or 49 heads, are chiefly religion, morals and society ;
but there are also verses on astrology, weather-lore, etc.,
and even riddles. Sarvajfia occupies much the same
place in Kanarese literature that Vemana does in
Telugu, and Nam-dev (fourteenth century ?) and Tuka
Ram (d. 1649) do in Marathi. Like them he preached
the vanity of idol-worship, the inefficiency of pil-
LINGAYAT WRITERS 73
grimages and of outward rites, and the need of sincerity
in life.
The following is the evidence as to his date : — (1)
Collections of his verses have been found, written
earlier than 1800 ; which proves that a verse in which
he is made to foretell the fall of Seringapatam (1799),
and probably another in which he speaks of that of
Ikkeri (1763) are not authentic. (2) His use of the
letter ra shows that he cannot have been later than
1700 ; and the old Kanarese grammatical forms which
he employs confirm this judgment. (3) One palm-
leaf manuscript found by Mr. Narasiiiihacharya states
that the collection was made by Sampadaneya Siddha-
viracharya, who is known as a diligent compiler of
Virasaiva verses and prose vacha7ias, and who lived some-
where about 1600. This would place Sarvajha in the
sixteenth century. Mr. Narasiiiihacharya, while stating
these facts, places him about 1700.
Verses by Sarvajna. (A.D. 1600?)
Note. — The terseness of Sarvajna's verses can scarcely be
reproduced in a Western language except at the cost of clearness.
The following renderii gs only represent the sense. The poet
appends his name to e-> ery stanza, much as an artist signs every
sketch he makes.
CASTE
When light enters Pariah dwelling, is it also outcaste for that ?
Oh, talk not of " high caste " and " outcaste."
The man on whose homestead God's blessing doth shine
Is surely a noble of lineage divine. Sarvajna.
We all tread the same mother earth ;
The water we drink is the same ;
Our hearth-fires glow no distinction doth show ;
Then whence cometh caste, in God's name ? Sarvajna.
FATE
They say that Lord Vishnu once lived as a boar ;
That Siva went begging from door to door ;
The Brahma himself had his head cut away,
Who was it that settled their destiny, pray ? Sarvajna.
74 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
IGNORANT WORSHIP
The foolish who bow to a wayside stone,
And are not aware of the One God alone —
These we should only for Pariahs own. SarvajSa.
VAIN PILGRIMAGE
Why seek for The Good on a distant shore ?
Look I meanwhile it grows at your own house door ! Sarvajna.
VI
THE RISE OF VAISHNAVA LITERATURE
1500-1600
Jayaiy-avishkritam Vishnor varaham kshobit-Hrnavani
Dakshino7i?iaia-damshirdg7'a-viha?ita-bhuva7iam vapuh.
"Supreme is the boar form of the resplendent Vishuti, which
scattered the waters of the ocean and raised up the peaceful
earth on the tip of his long right tusk."
This couplet usually heads Vaishnava inscriptions.
THE VAISHNAVA REVIVAL
The Vaishnava Revival was a revolt against the
unsatisfying character of the advaita teaching of
Sahkaracharya. For three hundred years after Sahkara-
charya's time, i.e. from 800-1100, his presentation of
monism and his doctrine of illusion {mdya) had held the
field of philosophic teaching and dominated the religious
thought of the people, unchallenged from within
Hinduism. But that system had reduced God to a pure
abstraction, an unconscious entity, which could not
satisfy man's craving for worship, sympathy and com-
munion. The Vaishnava reformers strenuously con-
tended against the interpretation put upon the
Upanishads by the Illusionists {maya-vadls) , as they
called Sahkara's followers. Accepting the same books
as authorities, they gave them a new interpretation,
and taught that the Supreme, the "One only without a
second," was a deity with a personality — a Being to
stir, and respond to, devotion, reverence and love.
The two great Reformers who initiated the move-
ment were Ramanujacharya, early in the twelfth
76 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
century, and Madhvacharya,^ in the thirteenth century.
Of these, the former, whose centre was at Srirahgam,
was driven by persecution into the Kanarese country,
where he converted the Ballal raja from Jainism, and
established the important matha of Melkote. His works
are in Sanskrit ; those of his followers chiefly in Tamil.
The second was born and lived in the Kanarese country,
with Udupi as his centre, and although he himself wrote
in Sanskrit, he inspired many works in Kanarese. The
followers of Ramanuja are called Sri Vaishnavas, and
worship Vishnu exclusively ; the Madhvas worship
Vishnu chiefly, but not to the exclusion of Siva.
It is worthy of note that the revolt against the
teaching of Sahkara was shared by Saivas also ; and the
feeling that they had a common cause led, during the
twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, to various
attempts being made to reconcile the rival Vaishnava
and Saiva creeds, by building temples to a combined
deity, called Harihara or Sahkara-Narayana.' But the
most important fact is that, whether the deity worship-
ped was called Vishnu (Hari) or Siva (Hara) or Hari-
hara, he was conceived of as personal, and not as
abstract ; so that bhakti (ardent personal devotion) took
the place of tapas (austerities, self-mortification) and of
yogabhyasa (self-hypnotism).
The personal Siva has been ardently worshipped in
the Tamil country, but, speaking generally, has never
called forth personal devotion to the same extent as the
more human incarnations of Vishnu in Rama and Krishna.
In North India, through the teaching of Ramananda,
(fifteenth century) followed up by Kabir (1440-1518) and
* Madhvacharya is sometimes by European writers confound-
ed with Madhavacharya (tlie author of the Sarvadarsana
Safigraha, the brother of Sayana, and minister of Bukka Raja in
the fourteenth century).
' Witness the Sankara-Narayana temple at Davangere, men-
tioned in a grant of 1147 ; the temple to Harihara, erected 1223
(hard by which the agrahara of Harihara was established in
1418); and the name Harihara, borne by the first Vijayanagar
king (1336-53), by others of his line, and by the poet Hari§vara
(0.1165).
RISE OP VAISHl^JAVA LITERATURE 77
Tulasi Das (1532-1623), the new cult of Rama rapidly
spread, of the existence of which there is no clear
evidence before about the eleventh century/ In South
India, Ramanuja and Madhvacharya adhered to the
already existing cult of Krishna, as he is represented
in the Mahabharata, which (except in interpolated
passages) makes no mention of the stories of Krishna's
boyhood or of his sports with the gopis. This element,
however, soon came in through the popularity of the
Bhagavata Purana, which, in its original Sanskrit form,
dates from about the ninth or tenth century.
In addition to the reason already given, the Vaishnava
Revival owed its success to its drawing freely from the
rich stores of attractive legend contained in the Sanskrit
Epics and the Bhagavata — to its extensive use of song
and kirtan — to its large mahatmya literature — and
also doubtless to the less austere character of its chief
hero.
VAISHNAVA LITERATURE TO 1600
Early Vaishnava Works. Actually the earliest Vai-
shnava writer of importance in Kanarese would seem
to be Rudrabhatta, a Smarta Brahman, of the time of
Vira Ballala (1172-1219), and author of the Jagannatha
Vijaya, which reproduces in champu the narrative of
the Vishnu Purana, from the birth of Kfish9a to his
fight with Banasura.
Another early writer was Narahari-tirtha of the
U^upi matha, third in succession from Madhvacharya.
In 1281 he wrote, in Kanarese, songs in praise of
Vishnu. Before becoming a sannyasi, he had been an
official in Ganjam, where two sasanas composed by him
have been found. He is said to have died in 1333.
It was not, however, tiU the period of the Vijayanagar
kingdom and the reign of Krishna Raya (1509-29) that
* See Sir R. G. Bhandarkar's Vaishnavism and ^aivism.
Rama had indeed been recognised as an incarnation of Vislinu
several centuries earlier ; but there is no evidence that separate
temples had been erected in his name. But see also Dr. J. N.
Farquhar's Religious Literature of India, pp. 189 f., 249 f.
6
78 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
the Vaishnava movement made itself strongly felt in
Kanarese literature.
It is at this time, the sixteenth century, and especially
in the poetry of the Vaishnavas, that a transition from
Mediaeval to Modern Kanarese begins to take place. This
shows itself in the following among other ways : —
Many ancient verbs and nouns fall into disuse (perhaps
because of their association with a different school of
religious thought) . The letter ra begins to be used laxly
in alliteration with other letters, and is finally dropped
altogether. Verbs, nouns and suffixes hitherto having
consonantal endings, now have the vowel 71 added to them
to assist enunciation. The form of the present tense is
changed, and a contingent future is newly introduced.^
Translations of Sanskrit Classics. Vaishnava Kana-
rese literature consists very largely of reproductions, in
various forms, of Sanskrit works. The progress of the
Vaishnava movement was considerably helped in the
early years of the sixteenth century by the publication
in rapid succession of Kanarese shatpadi versions of
its three great classics.
The first to appear was the leading story of the
Mahabharata, in which Krishna, identified with Vishnu,
is the great hero. Of this, the first ten parvas had
already been translated by Naranappa, a Brahman
gauda or sanabhog of Kodivala in the Dharwar district,
but better known by his nom-dc-phime, Kumara Vyasa.
Lihgayat writers mention that he was a rival of Chama-
rasa, the author of the Prab hu ling all le, and married his
sister. He must, therefore, have lived in the reign of
Praudha Deva Raya (1419-46). As his work is dedi-
cated to the deity at Gadag, it is often called the Gadu-
gina Bh^rata. The author, however, died before he
could complete his task. The remaining parvas (from
Santi onwards) were added about 1510 by Timmanna,
who describes his work as blending with that of Kumara
Vyasa, as the waters of the Jumna with those of the
* Kittel's Kannada- English Dictionary (Preface), and his
Grammar of the Kannada Language,
RISE OF VAISHNAVA LITERATURE 79
Ganges. His work was entitled, after his royal patron,
the Krishna-raya Bharata.
The success of the Bharata led to a similar presen-
tation of the story of the Ramayana, which was now
given to Kanarese readers for the first time from the
Brahmanical standpoint. The work was produced at
Torave, in the Sholapur district, and is generally known
as the Torave R^m^yana. The author calls himself
Kumara Valmlki, after the author of the Sanskrit
Ramayana ; but his real name was Narahari, His
exact date is unknown ; but it is later than Kumara
Vyasa, whom he mentions. Mr. Narasimhacharya
places him about 1500 ; but no mention of him seems
to have been found till the eighteenth century.
The Bh^gavata Purina was the third great Vaish-
nava classic reproduced in Kanarese about the same
time. Its author was Chatu-Vitthala-natha, who appears
to have lived at Vijayanagar in the time of Krishna
Raya and Achyuta Raya. His date is about 1530. He
also prepared a fuller rendering of the Pauloma and
Astika parvas of the Mahabharata, which had only been
briefly summarised by Kumara Vyasa.
It will be observed that the three great Vaishnava
classics were probably all completed during the reigns
of Krishna Raya (1509-29) and Achyuta Raya (1530-42).
This was a period in which the literatures of Kanarese
and Telugu meet, both languages being equally patro-
nised by these princes, who are said to have had eight
celebrated poets at their court. Beside the Vaishnavas
just mentioned, there were, among those who flourished
at the same time, the Lihgayat MaUanarya, and the
Jainas, Mangarasa and Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda.
Popular Devotional Songs. The worship of Krishna
was further popularised by short songs in ragale metres
by Vaishnava dasas, or mendicant singers, who wandered
from village to village. They received their inspiration
from Madhvacharya, to whom they all express indebted-
ness, and from Chaitanya, who, about 1510, visited all
the chief shrines of South India, teaching men every-
where to chant the name of Hari, and who died at Puri
80 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
in 1533. A collection of 402 of these devotional songs
in Kanarese was made by Rev. Dr. Moegling, who
published 174 of them in Mangalore in 1853, and these
have since been reprinted in Bangalore. They are
known as the Dasara Padagalu.
The earliest, most prolific and most famous of the
singers was Purandara Dasa, who lived at Pandharpur,
and visited Vijayanagar in the time of Achyuta Raya.
It is said that as a young man he was rich and close-
fisted ; but afterwards gave away his possessions, and
lived as a mendicant, singing the praises of Vishnu in
Pandharpur, where he died in 1564. All his songs end
with the name Purandara Vitthala.^
A contemporary of his was of Kanaka D^sa, of Kaginele
in the Dharwar district. He was of the beda (hunter)
caste, or, as some say, a kuruba (shepherd). Like
Purandara, he owed his change of life to Vyasa-raya,
the head of the Madhva matha at Sosile, who himself
composed lyrics in praise of Krishna. Beside hymns
extolling Vishnu, Kanaka Dasa wrote, in sahgatya, the
Mohajia-taraiigiyil ("River of Delight," consisting of
Puranic stories chiefly about Krishna) ; and, in shatpadi,
a Nala-charitre and a Hari-bhakti-sdra. This last, which
treats of morals, devotion and renunciation (wf/z, bhakti,
vairdgya), has long been in popular use as a book for
children to learn.
There exists a pretty little poem of fancy by Kanaka
Dasa, entitled Rdma-d/ia?iya-charitre ("The Story of
Rama's Chosen Grain"), in which he invents an ingenious,
and characteristically religious, derivation for the word
ragi, which is the name of the staple food of a great
part of the Kanarese country. The poem says that,
after the death of Ravana, Rama visited a hermitage,
and enjoyed the food set before him by the ascetics.
He then proposed for discussion the question — " Which
of all the grains is most excellent ? " The claims of rice
being disputed by another grain, known as naredalega
* Vitthala and VitJiobd are corrupt Kanarese forms of Vishnu
(Vitthu) with the affixes la and ba to denote tenderness or
reverence, (Dr. Bhandarkar.)
RISE OF VAISHIJJAVA LITERATURE 81
(" grey-head "), the gods came down to investigate the
case. After hearing the arguments on both sides,
Indra decided in favour of naredalega. Whereupon
Rama conferred upon it his own royal name of rdghava ;
whence its present name of rdgil^
The names of other singers are Vitthala Dasa,
Vehkata Dasa, Vijaya Dasa, and Krishna Dasa, the last
three all being of Udupi. Along with these may be
mentioned Varaha Timmappa Dasa, who was only less
prolific than Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa ; but he
lived two centuries later, in the time of Haidar Ali.
When Sagar fell into the hands of Haidar, he fled to
Tirupati, Contemporary with him was Madhva Dasa,
of U^upi.
The chief object of the poems is to extol Vishnu
above all other gods, and exhort men to worship him.
The gist of one of the songs is — "There is no god
equal to Vishnu; no tirtha equal to the Saligram ; no
book equal to the Bharata ; no life-force {chaita?iya)
equal to Vayu ; no teaching equal to that of Madhva ;
no caste equal to the Brahman caste." They record
the exploits of Krishna and commend pilgrimages to
his shrines. They also give expression to weariness of
the world, the sense of sin and helplessness, a depre-
ciation of outward rites and a yearning after purity and
divine help ; and, warning men of the approach of
death and the penalties of hell, call them to a religious
life. Mr. Charles Gover, in his Folk Songs of Southern
hidia, has given a free translation into English verse
of twenty-eight of these songs. Of these I quote one
by Purandara Dasa.
* In y.^.^. 5., July, 1920, Mr. Havell gives reasons for identify-
ing raji with the plant from which soma, the sacrificial drink of
the original Aryan Brahmans, was made. If this can be sub-
stantiated, it is of much interest.
82 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
A Song in Praise of Vishnu
BUY MY SUGAR-CANDY (THE NAME OF HARI)
My stock is not packed on the backs of strong kine ;
Nor pressed into bags strongly fastened with twine.
Wherever it goes it no taxes doth pay
But still is most sweet, and brings profit, I say.
Refrain: Oh buy sugar-candy, my candy so good,
For those who have tasted say nought is so sweet
As the honey-like name of the godlike Vishnu.
It wastes not with time ; never gives a bad smell ;
You've nothing to pay, though you take it right well ;
White ants cannot eat the fine sugar with me ;
The city resounds as its virtue men see.
From market to market 'tis needless to run ;
The shops know it not, the bazaar can have none.
My candy, you see, is the name of Vishnu,
So sweet to the tongue that gives praise as is due.
Another work popularising the worship of Krishna
was the Haj-i Bhakti Rasdyana (" Elixir of Devotion to
Vishnu"), by Chidananda, of the eighteenth century.^
* There exists also a ^aiva (not Vira§aiva) Bhakti-rasdyana
in shatpadi by Sahajananda, a Smarta, of the seventeenth
century.
VII
KANARESE LITERATURE IN THE XVII
AND XVIII CENTURIES
During the seventeenth century the Vijayanagar
Empire broke up into many small states, or palayagaris,
each vassal chieftain declaring his independence. The
Mysore State gradually absorbed many of these, and
finally emerged as the dominant power in the southern
part of the Kanarese country.
THREE OUTSTANDING WORKS
In the seventeenth and early in the eighteenth
century there were three writers who deserve especial
mention, as each produced something eminent in its
own department. They belong to each of the three
chief faiths of the people— one a Jaina, another a
Lingayat and the third a Vaishnava Brahman ; and they
were all independent of royal patronage.
The first was B hatidkalanka Deva, a disciple of the
Jaina guru of the Haduvalli t)ia(ha, in South Kanara.
He was an accomplished scholar in both Sanskrit and
Kanarese and is said to have been learned in six
languages. He is also said on many occasions to have
defended the Jaina faith in public assemblies. In 1604
he completed an exhaustive grammar of the Kanarese
language in 592 Sanskrit stitras, accompanied with a
gloss (vfitti) and a commentary (vyakhya) in the same
language. The sutras or mnemonic lines alone would
fill but a few pages, but the full commentary accompany-
ing them expands the book to 50 times that bulk. The
work is entitled KarnditaJia Sabd^nus^sanam. It is
enriched with references to numerous previous authori-
84 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
ties and quotations from leading Kanarese writers.
The author earnestly vindicates the claim of Kanarese
to receive as serious treatment as Sanskrit ; and says
that his aim has been to bring the language to the
notice of the learned, to promote its cultivation, and to
help to elegance and precision in its use. Although
the work is in Sanskrit, it deserves a place in any
history of Kanarese literature, because it is the most
important grammar of the language, being fuller than
the Sabdamanidarpana or any other. ^
The second writer was Shadakshara Deva, a Linga-
yat of Yelandur and head of a neighbouring matha.
He is said to have shown poetic talent from the age of
eleven. He composed poems both in Sanskrit and
Kanarese. He wrote three works in Kanarese — viz.
Rajaiekhara Vilasa (1657), VrishabhByidra Vijaya (1671)
and Sahara ^aiikara Vildsa. The second of these is
the story of Basava retold in champu. The third
describes one of the llles of Siva. But it is his earliest
work, the R^jasekhara, on which his fame chiefly rests.
It divides with the Jaimhii Bharata the distinction of
being the most highly esteemed poem in the language.
It is written in champu of the best period. Although
many metres are used, there is no shatpadi. The
poem is an elaboration of the story told in the Bhava-
cJmita-ratna (see p. 71). The following is an outline
of the plot :
RajaSekhara, the hero of the story, is the son of Satyendra
Chola, niling at Dharmavati. He forms a very intimate friend-
ship with Mitavachana, the son of the prime minister, who has
been brought up with him. Together they conduct a victorious
campaign against Ceylon, where RajaSekhara weds the king's
daughter. Some time after his return to the capital, he receives
a gift of two spirited horses from the Raja of Sindh, and proposes
to his friend that they should ride them through the crowded
town. Mitavachana earnestly tries to dissuade him, reminding
him that any loss of life caused is punishable by death, and that
* It has been published in Kanarese and Roman characters,
and with English translation of the si:tras, by Mr. Lewis Rice in
the Bibliotheca Carnatica (1890). A second edition is being pre-
pared by Mr. Narasimhacharya.
IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 85
it is his father's boast that he will carry out the law impartially,
however high the rank of the defaulter. RajaSekhara replies that
he will take all the consequences upon himself. They set out,
and Mitavachana, unable to control his horse, runs over and kills
a boy. The bereaved mother appeals to the king. RajaSekhara
admits that he alone is to blame, and is put to death. In grief
thereat, Mitavachana kills himself ; whereupon his father and
mother also commit suicide. RajaSekhara's mother, the queen,
and his widow are both in the very act of doing the same, when
^iva intervenes, raises to life all those who have died, commends
Satyendra Chola for his unflinching consistency, and takes him to
the joys of heaven.
The third writer, LakshmlSa, a §ri-Vaishnava Brah-
man of Devanur in Kadur taluk, is the author of the
Jaimini Bhiirata, which is more famous than any other
work of Kanarese literature, esteemed alike by learned
and unlearned, and universally studied. Little is known
of the poet, and his exact date is not yet determined.
An initial date is given by the fact that he has imitated
a number of verses from Virupaksha (1585). As the
earliest reference yet found to him is by Lakshma-kavi
(1724), and thenceforth he is frequently mentioned, it
is probable that he lived in or about the close of the
seventeenth century. Unlike the Jaina poets, he does not
name his predecessors. His poem is written throughout
in shatpadi, and is the best specimen of that style. It
is a free rendering of a Sanskrit work which bears the
name of Jaimini Bhdrata or Ah'a-Jaimi?ii, ascribed to
the legendary sage Jaimini. The narrator of the story
is Jaimini-muni, who tells it to Janamejaya. The sub-
ject is the wanderings of the horse appointed for
Yudhishthira's horse- sacrifice. It, therefore, corres-
ponds to a portion of the Asvamedha Parva of the
Mahabharata\ but it differs widely from the Sanskrit in
details. The real motive of the poem is to extol
Krishna. His greatness and the magical power of
meditation on his name constitute the recurring theme
throughout. The name of Krishna of Devapura occurs
in the closing stanza of each chapter. The following is
an outline of the story :
A horse-sacrifice, it must be remembered, was in ancient
times a proof of universal sovereignty. A horse had to be set free
86 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
to roam for a year through neighbouring countries, and an army
followed to overthrow any sovereign who dared to detain it.
Yudhishthira, having overcome the Kauravas, determines to per-
form such a sacrifice. Bhima is first sent to seize a horse from the
neighbouring country of Bhadravati, whose king he defeats. He
then visits Krishna at Dwaraka and brings him to Hastinavati.
The horse is sent forth, bearing on its head a gold plate with a
challenge to any king to detain it ; and is followed by Arjuna
and an army and Krishna. It wanders in turn to Mahishmati,
Champakapura, Stri Rajya (the Women's Realm, i.e. the Pandya
and Malayalam countries), the Rakshasa country, Manipura
(identified with a city in the south of the Mysore Province),
Ratnapura, Saraswata, and Kuntala, and finally crossing an
arm of the sea (probably the Ran of Kach), returns, via Sindh
to Hastinapura, the vanquished kings following in its train. The
geography is partly imaginary.
The interest of the poem consists largely in its episodes, of
which four may be mentioned : (1) In Champakapura the
prince, Sudhanwa, is punished for delay in going to battle by
being plunged into a caldron of boiling oil, but by meditation on
Krishna he is able to remain in it, cool and uninjured. (2) At
Manipura, the ruler is Babhru-vahana, a natural son of Arjuna
himself ; and Arjuna is under a curse to be slain by his hand. He
is accordingly slain and his head cut off, but by means of the
stone sanjivaka and Krishna's blessing, he is restored to life. At
this point the story is told at length of how Rama fought with his
sons, Ku§a and Lava. (3) At Mayuradhvaja's court in Ratna-
pura Krishna appears in the disguise of a mendicant Brahman,
who says that a lion has seized his son and refuses to release him,
unless it is given instead one half of the king's body. The queen
and heir-apparent both ofifer their lives as ransom, but are
rejected. On the king's preparing to give his life, Krishna reveals
himself. (4) At Kuntala the story is told of the romantic early
career of the king Chandrahasa, whose life was repeatedly plotted
against by the previous king's minister, Dushtabuddhi, but the
minister's schemes all turned against himself, and as the result
of them Chandrahasa weds the minister's daughter and comes
to the throne ; while the minister himself and his sou and his
hired assassins all meet with their death.
Extract from the Jaimini Bhdrata by LakshmiSa
(XXX, 24-33). c. A.D. 1700
CHANDRAHASA AND VISHAYE
Note. — Dushtabuddhi, prime minister of Kuntala, pays a
visit to the tributary prince of Chandanavati. Before leaving he
tells his daughter, Vishaye, that he will seek her a suitable hus-
band ; and he leaves his son Madana as regent. Arrived at
IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 87
Chandanavati, he recognizes in Chandrahasa a prince of that
place, the boy whom the Brahman astrologers had previously in-
dicated as destined to become ruler of Kuntala, and whom he
thought he had killed in infancy, having paid hired assassins to
murder him. So he now resolves to compass his death by poison.
Pretending friendship, he sends him with a letter to his son,
Madana. Chandrahasa arrives in the outskirts of Kuntalapura,
takes his meal in the royal garden, and falls asleep under a mango
tree. Just then Vishaye has strayed from her companions to
gather flowers ; and sees him asleep, and falls in love with him.
From this point the poet proceeds as follows :
Listen, O king ! While thus the maiden gazed,
With heart enamoured, on that princely form.
So beauteous in its youthful grace, and now
So deep in slumber wrapt, her eyes discerned
A palm-leaf scroll tied in his garment's hem,
Which lay full loose outspread upon the ground.
By sudden impulse moved, she forward stepped, and quick
Drew forth the scroll. And theu, with wonderment.
She found 'twas by her own dear father writ.
Elate with joy, she opened it, and read —
" His Excellency Dushtabuddhi,
First Minister of Kuntala's fair realm.
To Madana, his much beloved son,
A father's blessing sends. No common man
Is he who brings this note. 'Tis plainly shown
That this same Chandrahasa shall become
The sovereign lord of Kuntala. Bethink
What promise this holds forth for me and mine.
And how by us he should esteemed be.*
Wherefore make no delay ; nor idly ask
His birth or rank, his prowess or his fame.
But forthwith give him vishava, displayed
In such wise as to stir his heart's desire.
So shalt thou bring a royal benefit
To all our house. Farewell."
— Now vishava
Doth " poison " mean. And such the writer meant.
But where is he can alter by one jot
• In the original the ambiguity of the message depends on
two possible ways of dividing niahahita ("great friend" or
" great enemy ") and sarvathaniitra ("in all respects a friend "
or "in all respects an enemy"), and on the two meanings of
mohisu (" desire " or " fall in love with "). As it is impossible
to reproduce these in English, I have tried to imitate the ambi-
guity in another way.
HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
What Destiny hath on the forehead writ ?
And so it was. That gentle maiden pure,
Whose heart was full of tender hopes of love,
Remembering oft what, ere her father went.
He promised her, — that he a bridegroom fit
Would find and send — saw here the promise kept,
In such wise as should bring a royal benefit
To all their house. Since this most princely youth
Was marked by Fate to be the sovereign lord
On Kuntala's wide realm, what need to ask
His birth, his rank, or deeds already done.
" My father writes to give him Vishaye.
" 'Tis well. But by some mere mischance my name
" Is wrongly writ. From this one letter's fault
" Lest mischief fall, I will amend it straight."
Upon the mango bark within her reach
A gum exuding trickled down. This served
For ink. And with the point of finger-nail
For pen, she deftly scratched the palm-leaf scroll.
And changed the va to ye. Then fastened swift
The seal as 'twas before, and tied the note
Once more within the garment's hem ; and turned
To leave the place — yet treading soft, lest sound
Of rustling feet and bangles should betray
From whence she swiftly came. So she rejoined
Her folk.
But when they looked upon her face,
They noted there a new-born light, as of
Some happy secret found. They questioned her —
" How now ? " they said, " where didst thou stray so long ?
" And what doth please thee so ? " But she was coy,
And would not tell. Whereat they laughing said —
"Thy face is like a book that can be read.
" As well might wand 'ring zephyr try to keep
" The secret of the scented cinnamon grove
" As thou to hide thy heart's new happiness.
" Well, well ! Secrets will out ; and eftsoons we
" Thy secret too shall know."
She sweetly smiled.
And strove by forced merriment to hide
Hoxv fast her heart did leap ; — till evening fell.
And to the town they bent returning steps.
It was the Marriage Season of the year.
The jocund sounds of wedding-songs and dance,
Of tabret, drum and tinkling cymbal, filled
The air ; and troops of joyous matrons passed,
IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 89
Busy with bridal rites. 'Twas such
Auspicious sounds and sights did greet the path
Of love-lorn Vishaye. The very gods
Did smile upon her hopes.
VAISHNAVA LITERATURE AT THE COURT OF
THE RAJAS OF MYSORE
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the
patrons of Kanarese literature were chiefly the Rajas
of Mysore, who had become independent from about
1610. At the same time they began to withdraw from
the Lingayat faith, and to adopt the worship of Vishnu.
They also commenced to extend their narrow territory,
and to build up a strong kingdom by absorbing the
surrounding paleyagaris.
Histories. Several of the books of the Mysore
period belong to the department of History. This had
hitherto been represented mostly by inscriptions, many
of which were elaborate compositions in verse and
prose by distinguished scholars. Now it took more
and more the form of books. Among these may be
named Kanthirava Narasa Rdja Charitra, by Nanja-
kavi ; and Kanthirava Narasa Rdja Vijaya, by Govinda
Vaidya, both dealing with that raja's reign (1638-59);
Deva Raja Vijaya, a metrical history of the reign of
Do^da Deva Raja (1659-72), by Channarya ; Chikka
Deva Rdja Yaso-bhushana and Chikka Deva Rdja
Vamsdvali (1672-1704), by Tirumalayengar ; and
Maisuru Arasugala Purvdbhyzidaya, by Puttaiya (1713).
This last was one of the chief authorities used by Wilks
in his History of Mysore. The manuscript was fortu-
nately saved from among many which Tipu Sultan
had contemptously ordered, in 1796, to be taken for
boiling the gram for the horses. In this connection
mention may suitably be made of the Rajendra-7idme,
or Chronicles of the Coorg Rajas, by Vira-rajendra, of
Mercara (1808); of which there is an English transla-
tion by Lieutenant Abercrombie (Mangalore).
Chikka Deva Haya's reign (1672-1704) calls for
especial mention in connection with Kanarese literature.
He had spent his early life in Yelandur, and must have
90 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
been in that town when the Rajaiekhara was written.
He formed there an intimate friendship with a Jaina
scholar, named Vishalaksha Pandit, who afterwards
shared his captivity, when for 1.'^ years (1659-72) he
was kept in confinement in an obscure fort by his uncle,
the reigning prince, and who ultimately became his first
prime minister. His after ministers also were great
scholars and authors ; and doubtless these circumstances
encouraged him in his patronage of literature. He
caused a valuable library to be made of historical
materials, including copies of the inscriptions in his
dominions. Unfortunately, most of these were destroy-
ed by Tipu.
The raja himself is credited with the authorship of
several books. Two of these are prose commentaries —
on the Sanskrit Bhagavata, and on the later parvas
(XII-XVIII) of the Mahabharata. Another, the Gita
Gopala, consists of songs in praise of Krishna, with
prose summaries. But the best known is the Chikka
Deva Raja Binnapam (or " King's Petition"). This is
a series of thirty verses on religious subjects, each fol-
lowed by a prose amplification in the form of a prayer
to Narayana. The prose is in Old Kanarese, and pro-
fesses to give the gist of Visishtadvaita doctrine for the
benefit of all, in accordance with Bhagavad-gita, ix, 32.
All his works, however, make considerable mention of
the author's territorial conquests.
The raja was doubtless aided in the composition of
his works by TirumalArya, or Tirumalayengar, who had
grown up with him, and been his companion in study.
He was a great favourite with his sovereign, and
became, first, court poet, and then, minister. Beside
the two histories already mentioned, he wrote a work
on rhetoric, entitled Apratinia-vlra-charitra ("History
of a Peerless Hero "), in which every illustrative stanza
is in praise of his royal patron.
Chikupddhy^ya, called also Lakshmipati, another
minister, was a very prolific author, and wrote some
thirty works in champu, sahgatya and prose. He
appears to have been a very zealous propagator of the
IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 91
Vaishnava faith. Several of his works are translations
from the Sanskrit, including two versions of the
Vishmt Purana, one in champu, the other in prose.
Three are from the Tamil, viz. Divya-suri-charitre, a
history of the Twelve Alvars ; the Artha-panchaka, or
"Five Truths," of Pillai Lokacharya, a principal
Tehgalai authority, who is said to have lived in the
thirteenth century ; and a commentary on the Tiru-
vayi-mole of Nammalvar. Six are in praise of Rahga-
natha of Seringapatam, the local form under which
Vishnu is worshipped. Several are mdhatmyas, or
commendations of Vaishnava sacred places. They
treat of Kaiichi, Melkote, Tirupati, Srirahgam, Seringa-
patam, and Gopalswami Hill (near Gundalpet) , Encour-
aged by him, many works of the same character were
written by others.
SingarArya, another poet of Chikka Deva Raja's
court, and brother of Tirumalarya, has the distinction
of having written what, until recent years, was the only
drama in Kanarese literature. It is entitled Mitravindd
Govinda. It is a free rendering of the Sanskrit
Ratnavali{'^ Pearl Necklace ") attributed to king Harsha-
deva of Kanauj. In the original, it is a story of an
amour between Udayana, king of Vatsa, and a maiden
of the court, who is ultimately discovered to be the
Princess Ratnavali of Ceylon, who had been shipwrecked
on the coast. It is a mark of the strong Vaishnava
enthusiasm of the time that, in the later work, Krishna
is made the hero, instead of king Udayana. The
heroine also is renamed Mitravinda ; and the names of
the other characters have been correspondingly altered.
Honnamvia, a Sudra woman, attendant on the queen,
and called from her occupation " Saiichiya Honni," or
" Honni of the betel bag," was a pupil of Singararya's.
She showed literary talent, and wrote in sahgatya a
a book entitled Hadibadeya-dharma ("the Duty of a
Faithful Wife "), in which she cites illustrations from
the Epics and Manu.
The great literary activity of the Vaishnavas in the
seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries is further
92 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
evidenced by the number of fresh presentations of the
Vaishnava classics which appeared at this time.
The Bharata is represented by the Jaimiyii Bhdrata,
by the Lakshma-kavi Bharata (c. 1728), and by a
translation of the Bhagavad-glta by Nagarasa of
Pandharpur, who gave a Kanarese rendering in
shatpadi for each verse of the original.
Vehkayarya, a Madhva Brahman, who was a Haridasa
of Penukonda region, reproduced the story of Krishna
as contained in the tenth chapter of the Bhagavata, in a
work called Krishnalilabhyudaya.
Then there were no less than three fresh versions
of the Ramayana in whole or part. Tirumala-vaidya
(c. 1650) completed the work of Kumara Valmiki by
rendering into Kanarese the Uttara-kdnda, the only
portion of Valmiki's Ramayana which the earlier poets
had left untranslated. Timmarasa (c. 1650) translated
the abridged version of the story of Rama, which forms
an episode in the Forest Section of the Mahabharata,
where it is told by Markandeya to Yudhishthira. He
entitled it Markandeya Ramayana. Another rendering
is the Anatida Ramayana by Timmarya, of Sadali near
Anekal (c. 1708). Of him it is said that, although he
was without scholarly education, a natural poetic gift
showed itself in him from his fifteenth year ; and every
morning he would pour forth his stanzas before his
god, Timmaraya-swami, while a relative noted them
down. This is probably typical of the way in which
many Indian books have been written. The vaidika
Brahman in his agrahara is a leisurely person ; and
before or after his ablutions, when the body was
fresh, the intellect clear, and the devotional feelings
stimulated by worship, he would sit in the open air in
a retired spot, and compose and chant his stanzas,
and embellish them with the pictures of sunrise,
sunset or other seasonal changes, with which they
abound.
The latter half of the eighteenth century was not
favourable to authorship, as the country was frequently
overrun by alien armies, and the throne of Mysore was
IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 93
occupied by the Muhammadan rulers — Haidar Ali and
Tipu Sultan.
JAINA WRITERS OF THE PERIOD
Although the Jainas had lost their former pre-
dominant position, their continued zeal for their religion
is shown by the fact that in 1603 the colossal statue of
Gommatesvara at Yenur was sculptured. A re-anointing
of the statue at Sravaija Belgola in 1612 is described by
the poet Paiichabana of that town in his Blmjabali-
charitre (1614). In 1646, the Karkala image also was
re-dedicated. The history of this image and of Gommata
is given by Chandrama of the Tuluva country in his
Kurkala-GoniniaieSvara-charitre.
Occasionally the Jainas were subject to persecution.
The Telugu paleyagar Jagaddeva-raya of Channapatna
even went so far as to suppress the worship of
Gommata. Not long after, however, his dominions
were annexed by Mysore ; and on appeal being made
to the raja, and the antiquity of the worship proved by
the numerous sasanas, the priests, who had retired to
Gersoppa, were recalled, and the worship resumed.
These facts are mentioned by Chidananda-kavi (c. 1680)
in his Muni-vam^dbhyudaya, a genealogical account of
the Jaina munis.
In addition to these works, and to Bhattakalanka's
great grammar (1604) already mentioned, the following
Jaina works belong to the seventeenth century: — Bijjala-
rdja-charitre, which gives the Jaina version of Basava's
life at the Kalyana court ; Jina-mu7ii-tanaya, a cento on
morals from the Jaina standpoint ; and Ra?nacka7idra-
charitre, a new version of the Ramayana story, com-
menced by Chandrasekhara (c. 1700) and completed by
Padmanabha (1750).
Our account of the Jaina literature in Kanarese may
be closed with the mention of the Rajdvali-kathe, a
prose summary of Jaina history and traditions, drawn
up by Devachandra (1838) for a princess of the Mysore
royal family. It has been of great assistance as a guide
to the history of Jaina literature. The same scholar
7
94 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
wrote a Ramakathavatara (prose) based on the Pampa
Ramayana.
LINGAYAT WRITERS OF THE PERIOD
In addition to the writings of Shadakshara-deva already
mentioned, the following are the most noticeable Lihga-
yat writers of the period under review :
Basava-linga (1611) wrote ^ivadhikya-fiurajia, on
the pre-eminence of Siva, and in it he incidentally
justifies the reception of even the lowest classes into the
Lingayat community.
Siddha-naiijesa, a guru of Nandial(c. 1650), wrote the
history of the poet Raghavahka ; and also the Guru-
raja-charitre, or " History of the Great Gurus," which is
a very useful account of the Virasaiva gurus, acharyas,
saints and poets. It contains also an account of Siva's
twenty-five liles.
Kavi-Madanna (c. 1650) retold the story of Nannayya,
a contemporary of Basava's, whose devotion is often
referred to in Lingayat literature, on account of his
having cut off his own head to do honour to his guru.
Santa-linga-desika (1672), setting out to tell more
fully in prose the stories briefly referred to in the
Bhairave§vara-kavya of Kikkeri Nanjunda (c. 1550),
enlarged his scope, and drawing tales from a wide circle
of early writings, finally produced a collection of 81 tales
and 618 vakyas. Apart from the tales, it is of consider-
able value owing to the fact that it gives incidentally
much information about Virasaiva writers and their
works. It is entitled Bhairavesvara-kavyada-Kath/l-
sutra-ratnakara ("Mine of Stories from the Bhaira-
vesvara-kavya ").
Lihgay atism received a severe blow when the Jangama
priests were massacred and the Lingayat mathas des-
troyed by Chikka Deva Raja, about 1680 ; and there
appear to have been few Lingayat writers for some
time after. But Marulu-siddha (c. 1700), in his admira-
tion for Basava, made an enumeration in prose of the
miracles wrought by him, in thought, word or deed, and
entitled it "The Marvels {pavada) of Basava-raja/'
IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 95
They had now grown to be no less than 360. The
BraJunottara-kayida, a favourite 6aiva work, also pro-
bably belongs to this period.
WORKS ON ADVAITA PHILOSOPHY
We have thus far spoken of Kanarese works on
three religions, but have said nothing of works on the
Advaita philosophy. This has been because all works
on this subject had hitherto been in Sanskrit. In the
seventeenth century, this form of religion also was
brought within reach of the Kanarese reader by
Ranganatha, called also Rangavadhiita. As he appears
to have been a disciple of the author of the Bhakti-
rasayana (c. 1650), his date is about 1675. At the
opening of his work he thus justifies his use of the
vernacular :
Scorn not my words because I seek
In common speech deep truths to speak.
A glass may lack a Sanskrit name,
Yet show one's features all the same.
The way to bliss is hard to find
When wrapped within a Sanskrit rind ;
But, told in homely Kanarese,
Is free for every man to seize.
'Tis then like plantain's luscious pulp
When stripped of intervening skin ;
Or cocoanut which, broken, shows
The rich sweet milk which lies within.
If one's intent to gain release
From bonds that bind the soul,
What matters if he reach that goal
By Sanskrit or by Kanarese ?
The book is entitled Anubhav^mrita, or " Nectar of
Fruition." It is written in shatpadi, and expounds the
expression Tat twam asi ("'That art thou"), the
doctrines of the Universal Soul (atman) and of Illusion
(maya), the mode of attaining emancipation, and the
worship of the Absolute (nirgunaradhane), and other
matters. The work is still studied as a leading text-book
of the Vedanta in Kanarese. On it is largely based
96 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
another well-known work, the Jyiana-diidhii (" Ocean of
Knowledge"), by Chidanandavadhuta (c. 1750). The
epithet avadhtlta, which both writers bear, signifies that
they claimed to have cast off all family and property ties.
COLLECTIONS OF SHORT STORIES
Collections of short stories form another branch of
literature which, popular at all times, flourished in this
period. Most of these collections are in prose, and
have a very large reading public. They are generally
from Sanskrit originals, and in one form or another are
known all over India. The famous Brihat-katha, or
" Great Story Book," of Guna(^hya was, as we have seen
(pp. 28 and 38), rendered into Kanarese very early.
Another such collection, based on the Bhairaveivara-
kavya, has also been already mentioned (p. 94).
Other very popular ones are the following :
The Panchatantra. A champu version of this has
already been mentioned as having been made by Durga-
sirhha as early as 1145. The same stories, however, are
found besides in more than one prose version in Kana-
rese, the order of the tales varying somewhat in differ-
ent recensions.
This famoiis work corresponds in a general way to the Fables
of Bidpay ov Pilpay, ma.d.e known in Europe through a transla-
tion from the Arabic. Bidpay and Pilpay are indeed believed to
be corruptions of the Sanskrit vidyapati, " learned man." The
work relates how some unpromising princes were taught political
science by a clever minister under the guise of stories and fables
about animals.
It receives its name from its " five chapters," which treat of as
many conditions of political success. The first, Mitrabheda, " the
Sowing of Dissension among allied enemies," is illustrated by the
story of a lion and a bull, who were close friends until a jackal
poisoned the mind of each against the other. The second, iT///ra-
labha, or the "Acquisition of Allies," is illustrated by the tale of a
tortoise, deer, crow and mouse, whose friendship proved useful
to them all. Chapter iii, Kakoluklya, or the " War between the
Crows and the Owls," illustrates the danger of alliance between
those whose conflicting interests make them natural enemies.
Chapter iv, Labda-pranasa, " The Loss of what has been Gained,"
enforces the warning that what has been acquired may again be
lost, and that opportunities not utilised may never return. This
is illustrated by several stories, the chief of which is about a
IN THE XVII AND XVIII CENTURIES 97
monkey, which, having once escaped from the clutch of a crocodile,
could not be caught a second time. Chapter v, Aparlkshita-
karita, " Precipitate Action," teaches that actions done without
due consideration may lead to disaster, as, e.g. when the owner
of a mungoose, through not waiting to investigate, slew the
faithful creature which had saved the life of his child.
Battlsa-puttali-kathe, a collection of thirty-two stories
about Vikramaditya, supposed to be told to Bhoja Raja
by the thirty-two images which adorned the steps of his
throne,
Betdla-fianchavimsati-kathe, which exists in three
forms, champu, tripadi and prose. It tells how Vik-
rama, of Ujjayini, in order to obtain certain magical
powers, is directed to remove a corpse from a tree by
night in perfect silence. On each of twenty-five
attempts a vStala (a goblin or sprite) accosts him and
tells him some story involving a knotty problem. His
interest being aroused, he is led to speak, and so to fail
of his object.
Stika-saptati, seventy tales, related by a parrot to a
married woman whose husband was away on his travels.
HaMsa-vimiati-kathe, twenty tales by a swan.
Kat/id-7naniari, and Katha-sangraha, tales, often
with morals, from various sources, which include the
Epics and Puranas.
Ten7iala-ramakrishna7ia-kat he, ^jzoWeciion of laughable
anecdotes of the court jester at Anegundi, in the time
of Krishna Ray a, of Vijayanagar (1508-30). The king
and his chief minister appear in many of the stories.
It may be well to mention that Tennala Ramakrishna
was not only a jester ; he was a scholarly Brahman
who, under the name of Ramalihga, wrote several
works in Telugu.
A Specimen of Kanarese Humour
TENNALA RAMAKRISHNA AND THE HUNCHBACKED
MAN
When one day Tennala Ramakrishna had played on the king
a practical joke of more than usual audacity, the king was so
angered that he determined that the jester should die. He
98 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
ordered that he be buried in the earth up to his neck, and trampl-
ed to death by elephants. The bodyguard accordingly took
Tennala Ramakrishna to the open plain outside the city, dug a
pit, placed him in it, and shovelled the earth around him, leaving
his head exposed. They then went off to fetch the royal
elephants. While they were gone, a hunchbacked man came that
way ; and seeing a man's head projecting from the ground, asked
in astonishment how he had managed to get buried like that.
Tennala Ramakrishna replied that for years he had suffered
much from having a hunchback, and had spent his all on doctors,
but none of them had been able to cure him ; that some one had
suggested that if he got buried up to his neck in the ground, his
back would straighten of itself. Being very anxious for relief, he
had got his friends to bury him. What he now wanted was that
some one should kindly dig him out. The hunchbacked man at
once set to work and released him. Then Tennala Ramakrishna
expressed great delight, and said, " See, I have lost my hunch-
back, and am perfectly straight again ! Now yon get In, and lose
j/c?7^r hunchback." So the man got in, and Tennala Ramakrishna
filled in the earth : and then went his way and hid himself. When
the bodyguard returned with the elephants, they were astonished
to find buried in the ground a man other than the one they had
put there. Having heard the man's story, they reported the
matter to the king, who laughed so heartily at his jester's wit and
ingenuity, that he forgot his anger, pardoned the offender and
restored him to his office.
VIII
THE MODERN PERIOD
NINETEENTH CENTURY
With the nineteenth century begins an entirely
new period of Kanarese literature, brought about by
the influence of English rule in India, the impact of
European civilisation, and the introduction of Western
scientific methods of research and ideals of scholarship.
The reorganisation of the education of the country on
Western lines has largely increased the reading public,
and extended the knowledge of and desire for literature,
which now takes the form almost entirely of prose.
NEW CLASSES OF WORKS
The scope of this book, which treats rather of
India's heritage from the past than of its productions
in the present, as well as limitation of space, forbid
any attempt to enumerate the authors and writers of
this period. Their number has been very great,
especially during the past fifty years. It will be
sufficient to indicate the classes of works most character-
istic of it, and to name a few examples.
i. Educational and informational works have been
produced in large numbers and of steadily increasing
value. These have included works on linguistics, history,
biography, mathematics, agriculture, hygiene, medicine,
law and other subjects. Thus has been brought about
the beginning of a scientific literature — all earlier works
of quasi-scientific character being hopelessly out of date.
Although works on astrology and omens are still much
in demand, they will gradually yield to the advancing
wave of exact science.
100 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
ii. Tikas, or verbal paraphrases, of the chief
Brahmanical poems of the past have been prepared in
large numbers, to bring them within the understanding
of students. This does not extend, however, to the old
classical Jaina works, which are still very much neg-
lected owing to their religious standpoint being out of
favour.
iii. A class of books very largely in demand consist
of stories from the Epics and Puranas, in a new literary
form which sprang up in the eighteenth century, and is
called Yaksha Gana. It is a sort of dramatic composi-
tion suitable for recitation before rustic audiences by
professional or amateur actors. The earliest example
with which I am acquainted was by Madhva Dasa of
Udupi. Santayya, a Brahman of Gersoppa, who became
Principal Sadar Amin at Mangalore, wrote a large
number of works in this style.
Dramatic works of a higher order are now being
produced — a department of literature in which only a
single specimen (p. 91) has been found In earlier
centuries. During the past thirty years, however,
quite a considerable number have been published. The
Epics, Puranas and Kavya literature supply an inex-
haustible fund of material. Such stories as those of
Sakuntala, Harischandra, Nala and Prahlada are favour-
ite subjects. The RajaSekhara has been dramatised ;
and several of Shakespeare's plays have been adapted.
Among the earlier productions of this class may be
mentioned the ^akjintala by Basavappa 6astri, court
poet of Chamarajendra Wodeyar (1868-94) and the
Tapatl Parinaya by Vehkatavaradacharya of Sargur.
One of the most prolific dramatic authors has been
Bellavi Narahari Sastri. Another is Sama Rau. But
it is almost invidious to mention names.
iv. Novels are becoming increasingly popular.
Most of those hitherto published have been reproduc-
tions from English or Bengali. Several of the plays
of Shakespeare have been reproduced in this form, e.g.
Bhranti Vilasa (Comedy of Errors); also such works as
Sir Conan Doyle's detective stories of Sherlock Holmes.
THE MODERN PERIOD 101
The Bengali novels of Babu Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyaya and of vSurendra Nath have been
reproduced, chiefly by Mr. B. Vehkatacharya, a retired
munsiff. The most esteemed of these are the Durgesa-
7ia?idi7ii and Devlcha7idhi-rdni.
V. Periodical literature, in the form of daily or
weekly newspapers, and monthly magazines, are
characteristic of this period. Some of these are
prepared especially to meet the needs of female readers.
Others are representative of Government departments
{i.e. the Economic Journal) , or of particular classes in
the community {i.e. the Vokkaligara Patrike) . The
Vritta7ita Patrike, a weekly published at Mysore, has, I
believe, the largest circulation of any newspaper.
vi. All the various sects continue freely to produce
works illustrative of their creeds and praising the deities
of their choice. Many Brahmanical works, including a
prose version of the Bhagavaia (entitled Krish7ia Raja
Vanivildsa) were produced under the patronage of
Krishna Raja Wodeyar III (1799-1868). Other works
are of the Bhakti-sHra class, or are expositions of the
Vedanta. Some are the utterances of the modern
theistic movement, or are exhortations to morality.
Special mention may be made of the Niti-manjari,
by Mr. R. Narasimhacharya, which reproduces in ancient
Kanarese poetic form portions of some of the striking
moral treatises existing in Tamil, including the Knrral,
of Tiruvalluvar ; the Mudarai and Nalvale, of Auvai ;
the Ndladiydr, etc.
Christianity has entered the field with versions of
the Bible, Biblical Commentaries, books for the instruc-
tion of the Indian Christian community in the history
and teachings of Christianity, translations of such
Christian classics as Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress
{DSsdntriya Praydria or Ydtrika Sahchdra) , Augustine's
Co7i{essions, etc., and lyrics for use in Christian worship.
It deserves to be added that Kanarese is indebted to
the missionaries probably for the introduction of printing,
and certainly for the improvement of its typography by
the preparation of fresh founts of beautiful type for the
102 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
printing of successive editions of the Bible. Mission-
aries have also led the way in the careful study of the
language and literature. Witness the English-Carnataca,
and Carnataca- English Dictionaries prepared by Rev.
W. Reeve, of Bellary ; the scholarly Kamiada-Ryiglish
Dictionai'y and historical Karmada Grammar, by Rev.
F. Kittel ; the same scholar's editions of the Chhandom-
buddhi and Sabdamanidarpa^ia ; and useful anthologies,
grammars, etc., by Revs. Moegling, Weigle, Wiirth,
and others.
As a specimen of recent productions we have only
space to quote the following : —
Mysore Royal Anthem
Refrain : Great Gauri, thou lotus-eyed goddess benign,
Pour forth on our Raja thy blessings divine.
Thou Lady celestial, of loveliest grace,
Upholding all being — unbounded as space.
As Indra the demons — Agastya the sea —
Thou makest all powers of evil to flee.
All good that men seek is, by thy hand outpoured,
The Consort co-equal of Sambhu, thy Lord.
O Chamundi, dark-visaged lady divine.
Watch over Thy namesake of Chamendra's line.
For our gracious and good Maharaja we pray.
Oh cherish him, guide him, and guard him alway.
Note. — The vocabulary of this anthem is almost entirely
Sanskrit, though the forms are Kanarese. Chamundi is another
name of Gauri. Her temple on Chamundi Hill looks down upon
Mysore City. Like Krishna, she is represented as of dark-blue
countenance. Chama, a modification of Sanskrit Syatna, means
" dark-blue " or " black." The founder of the present dynasty,
and father of the reigning Maharaja, bore the name of Chama
Rajendra.
PRESENT POSITION AND PROSPECTS OF KANARESE
LITERATURE
It has already been mentioned in the Preface, that
by the researches, especially of the German missionaries
and of Mr. Lewis Rice and his coadjutor and successor
THE MODERN PERIOD 103
in the Archaeological Department of the Mysore Govern-
ment, the wealth of Kanarese literature has been made
known, the chronological position of the chief writers
determined, andalarge amount of information about them
made accessible. An extensive collection of manuscript
work has been assembled in the Oriental Library,
established in Mysore. Some important works have
been edited in the Biblioiheca Carriatica under the
auspices of the Mysore Government, and others by
private scholars, especially in two series, entitled
Kavya-manjari and Kdvya-kaldnidhi , and are thus
available for general study. Jaina works (but mostly
Sanskrit with Kanarese tlkas or verbal commentaries)
are being edited by B. Padmaraja Pandita, who also
publishes a monthly journal, Jai?ia-tnata-p7-akasika, on
Jaina subjects. Some Lihgayat works have been
edited by Kari Basappa Sastri of Mysore, and others at
Poona.
In May, 1915, while the present little book has been
under preparation, an Association has been formed at
Bangalore, under the auspices of the Mysore Govern-
ment, and named the " Kannada Sahitya Parishad," or
" Kannada Academy." This association includes repre-
sentatives from all parts of the Kanarese country. It
has as its object not only the study of past literature
and the encouragement of present writers of merit, but
the cultivation and improvement of the language — e.g.
by the unification of dialects, the fixing of scientific
terminology, and the formation of a common literary
style. These are matters of much importance, as the
language is undergoing rapid changes, and is exposed
to dangers which need to be held in check. It is
evident that the bulk of the literature will henceforth
be in prose instead of in verse, and that a vocabulary
and style intelligible to all readers of ordinary education
will more and more take the place of archaic words and
forms. It behoves writers to see that in giving
expression to the thoughts of a new age they do no
violence to the genius of the language. Three examples
will illustrate the dangers of a time like the present.
104 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
1. During the brief period of Muhammadan rule in
Mysore, Persian was made the language of the courts,
and large numbers of Persian words and idioms were
needlessly imported into Kanarese. Many of these
still survive in Government notifications and legal
documents, and form an object lesson of how Kanarese
ought 7iot to be written. Again, at the present time, in
the conversation of English-educated Kanarese persons,
English expressions are being similarly imported whole-
sale, without any attempt at naturalisation. These
reappear in hurriedly written newspaper articles, and,
being widely read, are apt to affect the style of public
speech, and denationalise and deprave the language.
2. One of the beauties of Kanarese is that all the
pauses and intonations, which in English are represented
by punctuation, are expressed by the vernacular idiom
itself ; so that no well-constructed Kanarese sentence
requires any marks of punctuation whatsoever. Never-
theless, most modern Kanarese books are disfigured
with all the cumbrous apparatus of Western commas,
semicolons, inverted commas and marks of interrogation
and exclamation. The result is, that there is growing
up a slovenly mode of writing, in which the sense is no
longer clear without these alien aids.
3. Another evil tendency appears in books rendered
from Western languages by incompetent translators.
Complicated sentences are reproduced in facsimile, in
which one adverbial clause is subordinate to another, and
that to a third. Such a mode of expression is wholly
foreign to Kanarese idiom and destructive to good
writing — a native Kanarese sentence, however lengthy,
being always simple in structure and pellucid in meaning.
It is to be hoped that no encouragement will be
given to the introduction of foreign idioms involving
intricacy and obscurity ; but that Western languages
will be utilised only to €?irich Kanarese literature (1)
by fertilising it with new and noble thoughts, and (2)
by lending it such additional vocabulary as is absolutely
necessary to express the ideas that result from world-
wide intercourse.
IX
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF KANARESE
LITERATURE
It will be helpful to the English reader if we mention
a few characteristics of Kanarese literature, some of
which will be found to be characteristic of other Indian
languages as well.
1. It will be noticed that the interest of Kanarese
writers is almost entirely religious. If we exclude
grammatical and linguistic works, there is, until the
nineteenth century, extremely little that is not connected
with religion. The history is mostly sacred history or
hagiology ; the works of imagination centre round
puranic and mythological subjects ; and every book
opens with a lengthy invocation of all the gods and saints
of the author's sect. Secular history, except as
represented by the records contained in sasanas on stone
or copper, begins to appear only at a late period.
2. The great bulk of the literature until the nine-
teenth century had been in verse. The Jaina poets
used a form of composition called champu, in which
passages of prose were interspersed among the metrical
stanzas ; but complete prose works have been compara-
tively few until recent years, when they have become
common enough. To read Kanarese books in the
ordinary tone of speaking is to miss much of their
beauty ; they are intended to be chanted. When thus
chanted with correct phrasing and musical intonation,
all the author's grace of alliteration, metaphor and
metre are brought out, and the effect is highly pleasing.
Even those who cannot follow the meaning will listen
to such chanting with delight.
106 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
3. Literary and poetic usage demands the use of
archaic forms and words, as well as of Sanskrit terms
for common things. Hence the ordinary Kanarese man
is no more able to follow the meaning of the great poets
than an ordinary Englishman is to understand an Anglo-
Saxon book. The books are written for scholars, not
for the man in the street. In indigenous schools it is a
common practice for boys to repeat large portions of
such books as the Jaimini Bhdrata without understand-
ing in the least what it is all about.
4. Indians have great admiration for the wit and
ingenuity shown in what is called iUsha or double
entendre ; and a writer's fame is much enhanced if his
work abounds with stanzas which are capable of two or
more meanings. This effect is facilitated by the fact
that consecutive words are ordinarily run together, so
that the letters are capable of being divided up in
different ways. The Pandava- Raghaviya, a Sanskrit
work of the sixteenth century, is written throughout
on this principle, so that, divided up in one way, it tells
the story of the Ramayaiia and divided up in another
way, the story of the Mahabhdrata ! In English literature
the practice of punning is confined to works which are
semi-comic, such as some of the writings of Tom Hood.
From the use of slesha and of archaic words and forms
two results follow. The first is that the writings of the
poets need to be elucidated by commentaries or tikas^
which give modern forms for ancient, and vernacular
terms for Sanskrit, and which expound the double or
treble meanings and the allusions to mythologic story.
The other is that a Kanarese poem defies anything like
literal translation into another language. To give any
idea of the spirit of the original it would be necessary
to paraphrase freely, to expand the terse and frequent
metaphors into similes, and to give a double rendering
of many stanzas. An example will make this clear.
The opening stanza of the Jaimini Bharata is given in
Sanderson's translation as follows :
May the moon-face of Vishnu, of Devapura, always suffused
with moonlight smile, full of delightful favour-ambrosial rays — at
SOME CHARACTERISTICS 107
which the chakora-eye of Lakshmi is enraptured, the lotus-bud
heart of the devout expands, and the sea of the world's pure
happiness rises and overflows its bounds — give us joy.
The following is an attempt, by means of a freer
rendering, to retain something of the spirit of the
original :
When the full moon through heaven rides,
Broad Ocean swells with all its tides ;
The lotus blossom on the stream
Opens to drink the silv'ry beam ;
And far aloft with tranced gaze
The chakor bird feeds on the rays.
So, when great Vishnu's face is seen, —
Whom men adore at Devapore —
Like to the sea, the devotee
Thrills with a tide of joy ;
Like to the flower, that blissful hour
The heart of the devout expands ;
And Lakshmi Queen, with rapture keen,
Watches with ever-radiant face
For her great Consort's heavenly grace.
O may that grace be ours I
5. There is a number of stock metaphors, drawn
from the lotus, the carpenter bee, the tide, etc., of
which Indian writers seem never to weary, and of
which use is made with infinite ingenuity in practically
every Indian poem. Some of these do not correspond
with the facts of natural history, but are mere poetic
conventions ; such as that the chakora bird feeds only
on the rays of the moon, that the lotus grows in rivers,
that the Asoka tree has no fruit, and that the lily
blooms only by night. ^ There is an interesting chapter
on this subject in the Kavyavalokana of the twelfth
century.
6. One misses in India the poetry of pure human
love, which forms so large and rich an element in the
* Compare the popular, but erroneous, belief, current in
Europe, that the ostrich hides its head in the sand to escape
danger — an idea probably derived from some fable. Also the old
Greek and Roman idea that the swan sings sweetly, especially
when death approaches.
108 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
literature of the West. This is partly due to the very
inferior position accorded to woman ; but it is also
largely due to the fact that marriages are arranged and
consummated in very early life, so that neither men
nor women ordinarily pass through that beautiful
and romantic period of courtship, with all its mutual
reverence, shyness and mystery, which is natural to
full-grown unwedded youth. The practice of early
marriage, it is true, safeguards youth from many serious
dangers. But its unfortunate effect on literature is that
the sweetheart is replaced by the courtesan ; and instead
of the healthy sentiment of a pure love we have
nauseous passages of erotic description, which disfigure a
very large proportion of the poetical writings. Against
this may perhaps be set touching examples of wifely
fidelity, such as Sita, Damayanti and Savitri.
7. I am afraid it must be confessed that Kanarese
writers, highly skilful though they are in the manipula-
tion of their language, and very pleasing to listen to in
the original, have as yet contributed extremely little to
the stock of the world's knowledge and inspiration.
They excel in the grammatical study of their own
language, and in description of the recurring phenomena
of the seasons ; but there is little original and imperish-
able thought on the questions of perennial interest to
man. There are earnest calls to detachment from the
world ; but this, after all, is only a negative virtue. High
counsels of morality are given ; but they are too abstract ;
they lack embodiment in genuine historical characters.
The legendary illustrations offered are marred by unreal-
ity, if not also by moral imperfection and faulty ideals.
The writers are dominated by the depressing conception
of life as either an endless and unprogressive round
of transmigration or a quest of the tranquil dreamless
sleep of nirvana. Hence a lack of that which stimulates
hope and inspires to great enterprises. Moreover, their
thought moves ever within the circle of Hindu mytho-
logical ideas, and is not likely long to survive the passing
of those ideas, which are now rapidly on the wane.
Among their writers one looks in vain for any rousing
SOME CHARACTERISTICS 109
moral preacher comparable to the prophets of Israel,
to the great Greeks and Romans, or such modern writers
as Ruskin, Tolstoi and Carlyle. As historic testimony
to a phase of human thought the literature is valuable.
But while there is abundant evidence of earnest spirits
perplexed with the mystery of the universe and seeking
to know THAT which lies at the back of what is seen
and temporary, there is no such answer to these
questions of the heart as to provide permanent solace
and inspiration. But a new and vitalising force has
now entered the land. The people are learning the
new truth that they are children of a Heavenly Father,
that life is an education for something better, that self-
sacrificing service of the brotherhood of mankind is
nobler than a selfish asceticism, and that righteousness
and sympathy are the qualities that unite to God — the
true path of yoga. And so, conscience is awaking as
never before, new ideals of integrity and duty are
beginning to inspire the mind of the people, and before
them shines a star of immortal hope.
X
KANARESE GRAMMARIANS
From a very early period Kanarese writers have
shown marked eminence in the department of Grammar
and allied siabjects, such as Rhetoric and the Art of
Poetry ; and this subject demands a chapter to itself. It
will be convenient to give a connected account of the
works of the chief grammarians, although their works
extend over several centuries. Most of these scholars
belonged to the Jaina community, to which Kanarese
literature owes so great a debt.
As early as. A.D. 600 Devanandi Piijyapada (see p.
27), wrote a Sanskrit grammar known as Jainendra,
which is quoted by Vopadeva (thirteenth century) as
one of the eight original authorities on Sanskrit
grammar. It is said to have received its name from the
title, Jinendra, which Pujyapada bore. It has also the
name of A^ieka-sislia Vyakarana (See Ind. Ant. X, 75).
About 850 was published the Kavirajaviarga, a work
on ornate composition and rhetoric, fully illustrated by
examples, and evidencing a popular interest in the
subject, and a high state of development in its study
(see page 25). It is to a large extent dependent on the
Kavyadarsa, "Mirror of Poesy," of Dapdin (sixth
century).
About 990 Nagavarma I wrote the Chhandovibudhi , or
"Ocean of Prosody," which, with additions by later
scholars, is still the standard book on the subject of
Kanarese prosody. It is based on the similar Sanskrit
work by Pihgala. In the account of the vritta metres,
each verse is so composed as to be an example of the
metre described in it. It has been edited by Dr. Kittel
KANARESE GRAMMARIANS 111
(Mangalore, 1875), who has added illustrations from
various poets. Kittel's edition includes an account of
shatpadi and other metres which were not invented
till after Nagavarma's time, but a description of which
had been added in later manuscripts.
In the twelfth century (c. 1145), another grammarian
of the same name, and hence known as Ndgavaj-vta II,
wrote two notable grammars of the language, one in
Kanarese verse, the other in Sanskrit sutras, which are
the earliest known systematic treatises on the subject.
The first is called §abda Smriti, and forms the first part
of a larger work, entitled Knvyavalokana, or " Treatise
on the Art of Poetry." This is the fuUest work in the
language on the subject of poetical composition. Suc-
cessive chapters treat of the Grammar of the language,
Faults and Elegances in composition. Style, and Poetic
Conventions. It is copiously illustrated with quotations
from earlier writers, as well as with original stanzas.
He followed it by a Sanskrit work, the Karnataka-
bhasha-bhilshana, in which the grammatical rules are
reduced to 269 sutras, or mnemonic formulae, each sutra
being accompanied by a vritti, or explanatory gloss, also
in Sanskrit. The edition by Mr. R. Narasimhacharya in
\heBibliotIieca Carnatica includes a Kanarese commentary
probably belonging to the seventeenth century. Naga-
varma II also compiled a Sanskrit-Kanarese glossary,
entitled Vasiu Kosa, which is the earliest work of its
kind in Kanarese. It is composed in a variety of
metres. Among other authorities, it quotes the Amara
Ko§a.
In the next century (c. 1260) Kesiraja wrote the
Sabdamanidarpana, or "Jewel-mirror of Grammar,"
which remains till now the standard early authority on
the Kanarese language. The rules are written in kanda
metre, and are accompanied by a prose vritti, or
illustrative commentary, provided by the author himself.
It was edited by Dr. Kittel (Mangalore, 1872), along
with a commentary of probably the seventeenth century.
Of this grammar Dr. Burnell says {Ai7idra School of
Grammariajis, pp. 8, 55): "The great and real merit
112 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
of the Sabdamanidarpana is that it bases its rules on
independent research and the usage of writers of repute.
In this way it is far ahead of the Tamil and Telugu
treatises, which are much occupied with vain scholastic
disputation." As Mr. Lewis Rice justly says: "This
encomium is equally applicable to other Kanarese
grammars, which had not been made public in 1875,
when BurneU wrote. Nothing is more striking than the
wealth of quotation and illustration from previous authors
which these grammatical writings contain, and this gives
them a high scientific as well as historical value."
In 1604 was published Bhattakalahka Deva's Kariia-
taka Sabddnuidsana, a fuller and more exhaustive
grammar in 592 Sanskrit siitras, accompanied with a
gloss and commentary in the same language. See
further, p. 83. Like his predecessors, he quotes numer-
ous previous authors and Kanarese writers.
Other works useful to the student of the language,
and illustrating the continuous interest in this subject,
may be tabulated in chronological order. The letter J
after a name denotes that the writer was a Jaina, and L
a Lihgayat.
c. 1150. Udayadityalattkaram, by Udayaditya, a Chola
prince, 72 stanzas on the art of poetry, largely
based on Dandin's Kavyddarsa.
c. 1235. Kabbigara-kava, by Andayya (J), a work written
entirely without tatsamas. See p. 44.
c. 1300. Amara-kosa-vydkhyana , a valuable Kanarese com-
mentary on the Amara-kosa, by Nachiraja (J).
c. 1350. Karndtaka-sabda-sdra , a prose dictionary of 1,416
words.
1398. Abhinava-nighantu, or "New Le.xicon," by Abhi-
nava Mangaraja, based on the Vastu-kosa of
Nagavarma II. It gives the Kanarese meanings
of Sanskrit words.
c. 1450. C/iaiurdsya-nighantu, hy Bommavasa (L); syno-
nyms in 130 stanzas.
c. 1500. Alddhavdlankdra, a translation of Dandin's Kdvyd-
darsa, by Madhava, a chief of Hiriyur in Kuntala.
,, Kavi-jihvd-bandhana , by Isvara Kavi; on prosody,
rhetoric and other subjects.
c. 1530. Kabbigara-kaipidi, or "Poets' Vade-mecum," by
Lihga (L); a dictionary of synonyms in 99
verses, intended to aid the understanding of the
KANARESE GRAMMARIANS 113
Saiva poets. He was minister to the Raya of
Nuggehalli.
1533. Kavya-sdra, a valuable anthology, by Abhinava
Vadi Vidyananda (J).
c. 1550. Rasa-ratnakara, by Salva (J); a complete treatise
on dramatic composition.
c. 1560. Karnataka-sabda-nianjari , a vocabulary of tad-
bhava and Kanarese words ; by Totadarya (L).
c. 1600. Karnatdka-sanjivana ( J) , a glossary of words spelt
with ra and [a.
,, Ndnd7'tha-ratndkara , a glossary of Sanskrit words
having several meanings, by Devottama (J).
,, Navarasdlankdrafhy T'lmma.; on rasa and rhetoric
ornaments.
c. 1640. Kavi-ka?itha-hd7-a, " Poet's Necklace," a metrical
repertory of synonym's, by Surya.
1700. Apratima-vlra-charitra , by Tirumalayengar, min-
ister of Chikkadeva Raya.
It is needless to refer to the many good modern
grammars prepared for use in schools.
XI
SANSKRIT WRITERS IN THE KANARESE
COUNTRY
An account of English Literature would scarcely be
complete without some mention of Newton's Principia
and Bacon's Nomwi Orgaruim, although these were
written in Latin. In like manner, many notable works
have been written in the Kanarese country by Kanarese
men, but in the Sanskrit language. It has already been
stated that some of the early Jaina poets wrote in
Sanskrit, e.g. Samantabhadra and Pujyapada Devanandi.
Reference has also been made to various poets, such as
Ponna (c. 950), Nagavarma II (1120), Palkurike Soma
(c. 1195), and Sha^akshara Deva (1657), who were
equally facile in Sanskrit and Kanarese, and some of
whom bore the honorific title, ubiiaya-kavi, "Poets,
both in Sanskrit and the vernacular." Mention has also
been made of Bhattakalahka's Kanarese Grammar,
written in Sanskrit (1604). A long list could doubtless
be given of Sanskrit writers within the Kanarese area.
The following are only a few of the more famous :
In the ninth century ^ankarOchnrya, the great Advaiti
philosopher, established his principal monastery at
Sringeri, where some think he died. Some of his
commentaries may have been written there.
In 1085 BiUiana, a Kashmiri Brahman, who had
settled at Kalyana, wrote the Vikramarkadeva-charitra, a
Sanskrit poem recounting the adventures and prowess
of his patron, the Chalukya king, Vikrama (1076-1127).
At the same court lived Vijhaneivara, who there com-
piled the Mitakshara, which remains to this day a
standard work on Hindu Jurisprudence. It concludes
SANSKRIT WRITERS 115
with the words: "On the face of the earth there has
not been, there is not, and there never will be, a city
like Kalyana ; never was a monarch seen or heard of
equal to the prosperous Vikramarka."
In the thirteenth century Madhvachdrya^ called also
Anandatirtha (1199-1278), founded the Dvaita school of
the Vedanta. He lived and established his principal
viatha at U^upi in the Kanarese country, where he wrote
his commentaries. He exerted a powerful influence on
Kanarese literature.
Early in the fourteenth century, Vidyatirtha, guru
of the Sringeri matha, was a great exponent of Sankara's
philosophy ; and Jayatirtha, guru of the U<^upi matha,
of Madhvacharya's.
Mddhavachnrya, called also Vidyaranya, wrote the
Sarva-dariana-sangraha, or " Compendium of all the
Philosophical Systems," and many other works. He
was purohita and first minister of Bukka Raya of
Vijayanagar (1353-77). He succeeded Vidyatirtha as
guru of the Sringeri matha. His own town was Hampe,
where he died and where his tomb is still shown.
His brother Sayana, who died 1387, was the most
celebrated commentator on the Vedas.
I believe that many of the gurus of the Sringeri,
Melkote and Udupi mathas have been the authors of
learned Sanskrit works.
LEADING DATES
Exact dates are in thick type. Other dates are approximately
correct ; but, if followed by a question mark, are more or less
conjectural.
Rashtrakutas ruling at Manyakheta in N. Karnataka, 820-973.
850 ' Kavirdjamarga.
941 Adi Pampa's Bhdrata and Adi Picrana.
950 Ponna's ^anti-purdna.
Later Gangas ruling at Talkad in S. Karnataka, 900-1000.
978 Chdvufida-rdya Purdna.
990 Nagavarmal's Chhandombiiddhi.
1000-1050 Cholas overrun S. Karnataka.
Western Chalukyas ruling at Kalyana in N. Karnataka, 973-1156.
993 Ranna's Ajita-purdna, etc.
1085 Bilhana and Vijnanesvara.
1145 Durgasimha's Panchatantra .
Kalachuris ruling at Kalyana in N. Karnataka, 1156-1186.
1160 Lingayat Revival under Basava and Channabasava.
Hoysalas or Ballal Rajas ruling at Dorasamudra in S. Karnataka,
1040-1326.
1105 Nagachandra's Pampa Rdmdyana.
,, Kanti (poetess) and Rajaditya (mathematician).
1098 Ramanujacharya converts Hoysala Crown Prince to
Vaishnavism.
1112 Nayasena 's Dharmdmrita .
1145 Nagavarma II 's Kdvydvalokanam and Bhdshd-
bhushana.
1165 Harii§vara's Girijd-Kalydna.
,, Raghavanka, earliest writer of Shatpadi.
1170 Nemichandra's Lildvatl .
1180 Rudrabhatta's Jaganndtha-vijaya .
1195 Palkurike Soma.
xii. cent. Transition from Ancient to Mediaeval Kanarese.
1200 Devakavi's Kusiiindvali.
1209, 1230 Janna's Yasodhara-charitre and Anantandtha-
purdna.
1232 Sangatya first used by SiSumayana.
1235 Andayya's Kabhigara-Kdva.
1245 Mallikarjuna's Sukti-sudhdrnava.
1260 Kesiraja's ^abdamani-darpana.
1275 Kutmidendu Rdmdyana.
1280 Madhvacharya preaches Dvaita doctrine.
,, The temples at Halebid and Java building.
LEADING DATES 117
1310-1326 Muhammadan invasions overthrow South India
kingdoms.
The Vijayanagar Kingdom, 1336-1610.
1350-1387 Madhavacharya and Sayana flourish.
1369 Bhima-kavi's Basava-purdna.
1385 Madhura's Dharviandtha-purana .
,, Padmananka's Padmaraja-purdna.
1419-46 Praudha Deva Raya's reign.
Chamarasa's Prabhulihga-lile .
Kumara-Vyasa's Gadiigina Bhdrata.
1470 Tontada Siddhesvara.
1500 Kumara-Valmiki's Torave Rdvidyana.
,, Singi-raja's Mala-basava-rdja-charitre .
1500(?) Nijaguna-yogi's Viveka-chijttdmani.
1509-30 Krishna-deva-raya's reign.
1510 Krishna-rdya Bhdrata.
1513 Mallanarya's Bhdva-chintd-ratna.
1530 Kannada Bhdgavata.
„ Kabbigara-kaipidi.
1533 Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda's Kdvya-sdra.
1550 Sdlva- Bhdrata.
,, Purandara-dasa and Kanaka-dasa.
1557 Ratnakara-varni's Annagala-pada.
1585 Channabasava-purdna.
xvi. cent. Transition from Mediaeval to Modern Kanarese.
1600 (?) Sarva jna-murti .
1604 Bhattakalanka's Karndtaka Sabddnusdsana.
Mysore Rajas become independent, and adopt Vaishnavism, 1610.
1614 Panchabana's Bhtijabali-charitre .
1646 Kdrkala-Gouiinatesvara-charitre.
1650 Bijjala-rdya-charitre.
,, Siddha-nanjesa's Guru-rdja-charitre .
1657 Shadakshara-deva's A'a/a/^/^^ara Vildsa.
1672 Santalifiga-desika's Stories from Bhairavesvara-
kdvya.
1672-1704 Chikka Deva Raya's reign.
Chikupadhyaya and Tirumalayengar.
1675 Anubhavdmrita.
1680 Mitravindd-Govinda.
,, Massacre of Jangamas.
xvii. cent. The letter ra falls out of use.
1700 Lakshmisa's Jaimini Bhdrata.
,, Chandra§ekhara's Rdmachandra-charitre .
1708 Ananda Rdvidyana
1728 Lakshnia-kavi Bhdrata.
,, Krishna-lildbhyudaya.
1 76 i -99 Haidar Ali and TTpu Sultan .
1838 Devachandra's Rdjdvali-kathe.
INDEX
ABERCROMBIE'S Co or g
Rajas, 89
Abhinava Mangaraja, 112
Abhinava Nighantu, 112
Abhinava Pampa, 34
Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda,
45_, 47, 79, 113, 117
Abliar inscription, 55
Achanna, 43
Acharyas, The Five Li6gayat,
54, 69, 94
Achyuta Raya, ofVijayanagar,
_79,80
Adi Pampa, 30, 116
Adi-purana, 30
Adrisva, 70
Advaita, 23, 34, 75, 95
Aggala, 43
Ahavamalla (Chalukya), 32
Ajitd-purana, 32
Akalavarsha (Rashtrakilta ) , 31
Akkadian language, 11
Allama-prabhu (Prabhulinga),
68
Alliteration, 29
Alwars, 91
Amara-kosa (Sans.), 13, 111
Amara-kosa-vyakhyana, 112
Amara-simha, 36
Amitagati, 37
Ananda Ramayana, 92, 117
Anandatirtha (Madhvacharya) ,
115
Ananiandtha-purana, 43, 116
Anday\-a, 15, 44, 112, 116
Aneka-sesha-vyakarana, 110
Anga-sthala, 51
Anjand-charitre , 44
Annagala-padagahi , 47, 117
Anubhavdmrita , 95, 117
Aparajita-Sataka, 47
Apratima-vira-charitra , 90, 113
Arddhya-charitre , 69
Arddha Nemi, 43
ArikeSari (prince), 30, 31
Artha-panchaka (Tamil), 91
Aryabhata (Sans.), 33
Ashtavaranam, 50
Astrology, 43
Aswa-jahnini (Sans.), 85
ASvamedha-parva, 85
Augustine's Confessions, 101
Auvai (Tamil poetess) , 101
Avadhuta-glte, 70
Ayata-varma, 48
DABU Bankim Chandra Chat-
^ topadhyaya, 101
Badaga language, 14
Bagavadi, 52 f
Bahubali (= Gommata), 19, 20
Bahubali of Sringeri, 26
Balipura (= Belgami), 33
Ballal rajas, 30, 34, 36, 42, 55,
60, 76, 116
Bana (Sans.), 33, 49
Banavase, 33, 43, 68
Bandhuvarma, 43, 44
Basavacharya, 24, 42, 52 flf, 57,
65, 68, 94, 116
Basava-linga, 94
Basavappa Sastri, 100
Basava-purdna, 50, 53, 55, 59,
62, 64, 65, 117
Basava-purdnada-piirdtanara-
charitre, 69
Battl sa-puttale-kathe , 97
Bednur, 52
Begiir inscription, 13
Behistun inscription, 11
Bellatur inscription, 13
120 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
Bellavi Narahari Sastri, 100
Beiiar, 61
Betdla-panchavimsati-kathe , 97
Bhadrabahu, 18
Bhagavad-gita, 90, 92
Bhagavata-purana, 77, 79, 90,
92, 101, 117
Bhairavesvara-kdvya , 94, 96,
117
Bhakti-rasdyana, 82, 95
Bhakti-sdra, 101
Bhallataki-pura(Gersoppa),47,
64
Bhandarkar, Sir R. G., 23, 55,
77, 80
Bharata (emperor), 20
Bhdrata, 35 f , 70, 81 ; Pampa,
31 ; Gadagina, 78 ; Krishna-
raya, 78 ; Salva, 47; Jairaini,
85 ; Lakshma-kavi, 92
Bharatesvara-charitre , 47
Bharavi (Sans.), 28
Bhaskara of Penukonda, 46
Bhaskara (Telugu poet), 45
Bhattakalanka-deva, 8, 28, 83,
93V 112, 114, 117
Bhava-chinta-ratna, 71, 84, 117
Bhilsa(=: Vaidiga), 26
Bhima river, 53
Bhima-kavi, 64, 68, 117
Bhrdnti-vilasa, 100
Bhvicharas, 34
Bhujabali-charitre , 93, 117
Bible, 102
Bibliotheca Carndtica, 84, 103,
111
Bijjala Ray a, 52, 53, 55, 60
BiJiala-Raya-charitre, 53, 93,
117
Bilhana (Sans.), 114, 116
Bitti-deva (Vishnuvardhana),
34
Bommarasa, 46, 69, 112
Brahma-Siva, 37
Brahmi lipi, 14_
Brahmottara-kdnda, 95
Brahui language, 11
Biihler, Dr., 14
Bukka Raya, 46, 76, 115
Burnell, A. C, quoted, 14, 111
r^ALD WELL'S Comparative
^^ Grammar, 11
Carnatic, 12
Chaitanya, 16, 24, 79
Chalukyas (Early), 17, 30
Chalukyas (Western), 29, 32,
33, 38,116
Chamarajendra Wodeyar, 100,
102
Chamarasa, 68, 70, 78, 117
Champu, 16, 38, 59, 105
Chamundi, 102
Chandra-chuddmani-sataka, 34,
37
Chandragupta, 18, 19
Chandrahasa, 86 ff
Chandrama, 93
Chandraprabha-Purana , 43, 46
Chandra-raja, 33
Chandragekhara, 35, 93, 117
Channabasava, 52, 54, 68, 116
Channabasava-purana, 50, 51,
53, 68, 117
Channabasava-stotrada-ragale,
62
Channapatna, 93
Channarya, 89
Chaturdsya-nighantu, 112
Chaturdsya-purdna, 69
Chatu-Vitthala-natha, 79
Chauta Rajas, 64
Chavundaraya, 27, 32, 33
Chdvundardya-Purdna, 32, 35,
116 ■ _
Cheramanka (King), 69
Chhandombuddhi, 33, 102
Chidananda, 82
Chidananda Avadhuta, 96
Chikka Deva Raja Binnapam,
90
Chikka Deva Rdja Yasobhus-
hana, 89
Chikka Deva Raya, 89, 91, 94,
113, 117
Chikka Deva Rdya Vamsdvali,
89
Chikupadhyaya, 90, 117
Chitaldrug, 52
Cholas, 18, 24, 30, 33, 112, 116
Chfiddmani, 27
INDEX
121
HANDIN (Sans.) 27, 28, 110,
^ ii2
Dasara-padagalu , 80
Dasaratha-jdtaka, 36
Davangere, 76
Desdntriya-praydna, 101
Devachandra, 24, 35, 93, 117
Devlchandhu-rdnl , 101
Devagiri, 60
Deva-kavi,63, 116
Devanandi (Pujyapada), 26,
110, 114
Devanur, 85
Deva-rdja-vijaya, 89
Devottama, 113
Dharmdmrita , 35, 37, 116
Dharmandtha-purdna^ 46, 117
Dharma-parlkshe , 37
Digambaras, 18, 21
Dlkshd-bodhe, 61
Divyasuri-charitrd, 91
Dodda Deva Raja, 89
Doddahundi inscription, 13
Doddananka, 46
Doddayya, 46
Dorasamudra, 30, 36, 60, 61, 116
Drama, 91, 100
Dravidian languages, 11
Durgasimha, 38, 96, 116
Durgesa-nandinl , 101
Durvinita, 28
Dvaita, 115, 116
'CCONOMIC JOURNAL, 101
*-^ Ekantada Ramayya, 55
Ekorama, 54, 55
Ekorami-tande, 54
Epigraphia Carndtica, 13
Epigraphia Indica, 55
Ereyappa (Ganga king), 30
pA HI AN, 26
^ Farquhar,Dr. J. N., quoted,
41, 50, 77
Finnish Language, 11
n ADUGINA Bhdrata,l%, 117
^^ Gadd-yuddha, 32
Ganga Kings, 13, 17, 24, 29, 32,
116
Ganjam, 77
Gautama Buddha, 20
Gazetteer of Mysore, 6, 14
Gersoppa, 47, 64, 93, 100
Ghatachakra-vachana, 54
Girijd-kalydna, 60, 116
Gitd-Gopdla, 90
Gommategvara, 19, 46, 93
Gopalswami Hill, 91
Gover, Chas., Folk Songs, 81
Govinda Vaidya, 89
Grammatical works, 110 f
Gubbi, 69, 71
Gujarat, 18, 24
Gunadhya, 28, 38, 96
Gunanandi, 28
Gunavarma I, 30
Gunavarma II, 43, 44
Guru-basava, 70
Gururaja, 69
Gururdja-charitre , 94, 117
HA D I B A D E Y A -
D HARM A, 91
Haidar, 81, 93
Halebid, 30, 60, 116
Hampe, 60, 61, 115
Hmhsa-vhiisati-kathe , 97
Hari-bhakti-rasdyana, 82
Hari-bhakti-sdra, 80
Harihara, of Vijayanagar, 46
Harihara, the jjoet, 60
Harihara (= Sahkara Nara-
yana), 76
Harihara-inahatva, 61
Harischandra-kdvya , 60
Harisvara, 55, 60, 61, 69, 76, 116
Harivamsa, 20, 30
Harshadeva, of Kanauj, 91
Harsha-charita (Sans.), 49
Havell, Mr. E_. B^, quoted, 81
Hemachandracharya, 24
Hiuen Tsang, 17, 26
Honnamma, 91
Hoys alas, 17, 30, 44, 116
Hultzsch, Dr., 12
jKKERI, 52,73
^ Indian Antiquary , 55
122 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
Indraraja (Rashtrakuta), 22
Isvara-kavi, 112
TACOBI, Prof. H., 23,36
J Jagadekamalla (Chalukya),
38 _ _ _
Jagad-deva-raya (paleyagar),
93
Jagaddala Somanatha, 37
Jaganndtha-vijaya, 11 , 116
Jaimini Bhdrata, 84, 85, 92,
106 f, 117
Jaina Religion and Literature,
17 ff
yaz«^wrfra( Sanskrit Grammar),
27, 110
Jaina-mata-prakdsikcL, 103
Jakkanarya, 70
Jangamas, 49, 70, 94
Janna, 43, 44, 116
Java, 14, 116
Jayabandhu, 28
Jayasimha, 33
Jayatirthacharya, 115
Jinachandra-deva, 31
Jindksharamdle , 32
Jina-inuni-tanaya, 93
Jinas (= Tirthankaras), 19 ff
JIvandhara-raja, 46
Jlva-saynbodhana, 44
Jndna-bhdskara-charite, 47
Jnana Sambandhar (Tamil), 71
Jhdna-sdra, 34
Jndna-sindhu, 96
Journal of Royal Asiatic
Society, 13, 65, 81
KABBIGARA - KAIPWI,
112, 117
Kabbigara-kdva, 15, 44, 112, 116
Kabir, 76
Kddainbari , 33
Kadambas, 17, 43
Kaggere, 71
Kalacluiris, 17, 24, 52, 60, 116
Kala-jnana, 56
Kdla-jTidna-vachana , 54
Kalidasa, 28
Kalyana, 29, 52, 56, 68, 69, 114,
115, 116
Kamalabhava, 43
Kamban (Tamil poet), 36
Kanaka-dasa, 80, 117
Kanarese Country, 12
Kanarese Language, 11-16, 102-
104
Kanarese, Idiom, 104; Ancient,
Mediaeval, and Modern
Forms, 14, 15 f, 59, 78, 116,
117; Typography and Print-
ing, 101, 104
Kanarese Literature, Periods,
15, 16 ; Present position and
prospects, 102-104 ; Charac-
teristics, 105-109 ; Modern
study of, 8,9, 102, 103
Kanchi, 18, 26, 91
Kannada Sahitya Parishad 103
Kanthlrava Narasa Raja Cha-
riira, 89
Kanthlrava Na rasa Raja
Vijaya, 89
Kanti (poetess), 36, 116
Karahataka, 26
Kari Basappa ^astri, 103
Karkala, 19, 47, 93
Kdrkala - Gotmnatesvara - cha-
ritre,Q2,, 117
Karnaparya, 37
Karndtaka - bhdshd - bhushana,
37', 111
Karndtaka-kavi-charite , 8, 9,
28, 33
Karndtaka-Sabda-manjari , 1 13
Karndtaka-§abddnusdsana, 83,
112
Karndtaka-iabda-sdra, 112
Karndtaka-sarijivana, 113
Kathd-rnanjari, 97
Kathd-sahgraha, 97
Kathiawar, 18
Kdvana-gella, 44
Kavi-jihvd-bandhana, 112
Kavi-kantha-hdra, 113
Kavi-Madanna, 94
Kavi-parameshthi, 26, 27
Kavi-rdjamdrga, 12, 25, 29, 110,
116
Kdvyddaria, 28, 110, 112
Kdvya-kaldnidhi, 103
INDEX
123
Kdvya-manjari, 103
Kavya-sara, 45, 47, 113, 117
Kavyavalokana,'i7, 107, 111, 116
Keladi Nayaks, 52
Kereya Padmarasa, 55, 61, 68
KeSiraja, 44, 45, 111, 116
Khagendra-tnani-darpana , 45
Khecharas, 34
Kigga inscription, 13
Kirdtdrjuniya (Sans.), 28
Kittel, Rev. F., 7, 14, 78, 102,
110, 111
Kolhapur, 12, 43,49
KoUipaka, 54
KoteSvara, 46
Krishna-dasa, 81
Krishna-llldbhyudaya, 92, 117
Krishna-raja (Rashtrakuta), 31
Krishna-raj a-vdni-vildsa, 101
Krishna Raja Wodeyar III , 101
Krishna Raya ( of Vi jayanag ar ) ,
71, 79, 97, 117
Krishna-rdya Bhdrata, 47, 79
Kumara Bankanatha, 70
Kumara Channabasava, 69
Kumara Padmarasa, 61
Kumarapala of Gujarat, 24
Kumara Valmiki, 79, 92, 117
Kumara Vyasa, 68, 70, 78, 79,
117
Kumudendu Rdnidyana, 35, 45,
59, 116
Kunigal, 71
Kuntala, 60, 86, 112
Kurral (Tamil), 101
Kusumdvali, 63, 116
J A, 13 f, 59, 113
V Lakkanna, 70
Lakshma-kavi, 85
Lakshma-kavi- Bhdrata, 92, 117
Lakshmana-Raja (Silahara), 43
LakshmeSvara (Puligere), 30,
62
Lakshmlpati ( Chikupadhyaya) ,
90
LakshmiSa, 85, 117
Lildvatl,^Z, 63, 116
Linga(Bhava,Prana andlshta),
51
Linga-sthala, 51
Lingayat Religion, 49 ff, 94
1V/TACD0NELL, Dr. A. A.,
^*^ quoted, 28
Machikabbe, 22
Machi-raja (Chalukya general ) ,
33
Madana-tilaka, 33, 37
Madana-vijaya, 44
Madhava of Hiriyur, 112
Madhavacharya (Vidyaranya) ,
46, 76, 115, 117
Mddhavdlahkdra , 112
Madhura, 46, 117_
Madhvacharya(Anandatlrtha) ,
16, 24, 76, 77, 79, 115, 116
Madhva-dasa, 81, 100
Madiraja, 52
Madivala Machayya, 54
Madivdlayya-sdhgatya, 54
Madura, 18
Mahabalakavi, 43
Mahdbhdrata, 35, 36, 37, 77, 78,
79_,85, 90, 106
Mahadevi-akka, 58
Mahalinga-deva, 70
Mahatmyas, 77, 91
Mahendrantaka (Ganga king),
30
Maisuru-arasugala-piirvabhyu-
daya, 89
Malabasava-rdja-charitre , 67 .
117 _
Malayalam, 14
Maleyur, 24
Malla, poet, 13
Mallanarya, 69, 71, 79, 117
Mallanna, 69
Mallikarjuna, compiler of
Sukti-sudhdrnava , 44, 47, 116
Mallikarjuna (Panditaradhya),
54, 69
Mallikarjuna-kavi, 69
Mallindtha-purdna , 34
Manargoli inscription, 53
Manchanna, 52
Mangalore, 89, 100, 110, 111
Mangaraja I, 45
Mangarasa, 46, 79
124 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
Manikka Vachaka (Tamil
mystic), 51
Mantra-gopya, 54
Manyakheta, 17, 25, 29, 31, 116
Marathi, 15, 60, 72
Mdrkandeya Rdniayana, 92
Marula-siddha (poet)', 67, 94
Marula-siddha (acharya),54
Mathematics, 36, 99
Maya-vadis, 75
Mitakshara (Sans.), 114
Mitravinda Govinda, 91, 117
Moegling, Dr., 80, 102
Mohana-tarahgini , 80
Alrichchakatikd (Sans.), 30
Mudabidire, 47
Mridarai (Tamil)
Muni-suvrata(Tirthankara), 20
Muni-vanis dbhyudaya , 93
Mysore Rajas, 83, 89
Mysore Royal Anthem, 102
MABH0GAMANA-VIDYA,35
^^ Nachiraja, 112
Nagachandra, 34, 36, 116
Nagalambike, 52
Nagdnanda (Sans.), 34
Naga-kumara, 46
Nagaraja, 35, 45
Nagarasa, 92
Nagarjuna, 28
Nagavarma I, 7, 33, 43, 110, 116
Nagavarma II, 37, 111, 112,
114, 116 _
Nagavarmacharya, 33
Nagideva (of Karasthala), 70
Nagini river, 71
Nala-charitre, 80
Ndladiydr (Tamil), 101
Nalvale (Tamil), 101
Nambiyanna, 60, 69
Nam-dev (Marathi), 72
Nammalvar (Tamil), 91
Ndndrtha-rattidkara, 113
Nanja-kavi, 89
Nanjunda (of Kikkeri), 94
Nannayya, 94
Narahari-tirtha, 77
Naranappa (Kumara Valmiki),
78 ■
Narasimha (Ballal) I, 55, 60,
61
Narasimhacharya, R., 6, 30, 32,
55, 73, 79, 8_4, 111
Narasimhacharya, S. G., 6
Naredalega (= ragi), 80, 81
Navarasdlankdra , 113
Nayaks of Keladi (Bedniir), 52
Nayasena, 35, 37, 116
Nemanna, 47
Nemichandra, 27, 43, 63, 116
Neiiii-jinesa-purdna, 46
Neminatha (Tirtliankara), 20,
43
Nemindtha-purdna, 30, 37, 43,
117
Nijaguna-Sivayogi, 69, 71
Nilakanthacharya, 69
Niti-nianjari, 101
Nripatuhga (Rashtrakiata), 25
Nuggehaili, 113
Nurondu-sthala, 70
Niitana-puratanas, 51
DADMANABHA, 35
*■ Padma-charitrd, 36, 44
Padmanahka, 68, 117
Padmaraja Pandita, 103
Padniardja-purdna, 59, 61, 68,
117
Paleyagars, 89, 93
Palkurike Soma, 53, 61, 62, 64,
69, 114
Pdlkurike-Soinesvara-purdna,
62
Pampa (Adi), 30
Pampa (Abhinava), 34
PcDiipa Bhdrata, 31
Pampa Rdmdyana, 34, 45, 116
Pampd-satakam, 60
Panchabana, 93, 117
Panchakshara, 51, 61, 71
Panchatantra, 38, 96, 116
Pdiidava-Rdghavlya, 106
Pandharpur, 80, 92
Panditaradhya (Mallikarjuna),
54; 69
Pandyan Kings, 18
Panini, 27, 36
Pdnini-sabddvatdra, 27
INDEX
125
ParSvanatha, 20
Pdrsvandtha-pnrdna, 43
Par§va-pandita, 43, 44
Pataliputra, 26
Patanjali, 37
Pattadakal, 33
Paumachariya, 36
Pavadas of Basava, 53, 65, 67, 94
Penukonda, 68, 92
Periya-purana (Tamil), 51
Persian words, 104
Pillai Lokacharya (Tamil), 91
Piiiai Naynar (Tamil), 71
Pingala (Sans.), 110
Ponna, 31, 114, 116
Prabhudeva, 54
Prabhulinga, 68
Prab/mlinga-llle, 68, 78, 117
Praudha Deva Raya II, 68, 70,
78, 117
Praudha-rdya-charitre , 70
POjyapada, 26, 41, 45, 110, 114
Puligere (LakshmeSvar), 24,
29, 30, 60, 62, 69
Puligere Soma, 62
Punctuation, 104
Punydsrava, 35, 45
Puranas (Jaina), 42, 43, 46
Puranas (Vaishnava), 79, 91
Purandara-dasa,'80, 81, 117
Purandara Vitthala, 80
Puratanas, 51, '60, 69
Purdtanara-tripadi , 69
Pushpadatita-purdna , 43
Pushpadatta, 72
Puttaiya, 89
DA, 13, 14, 78, 113, 117
,. Rachamalla IV (Ganga
king), 32, 33
Ragale, 16, 59
Raghava, 81
Raghavanka, 55, 59, 61, 94, 116
Rdghavdnka-charitre , 61
Raghunatha Rau, R., quoted,
15
Ragi, 80,81
Rajaditya, 36, 116
Rdjasekhara-vildsa, 72, 84, 90,
100
Rdjdvali-kathe, 25, 93, 117
Rdja-yoga-vachana, 54
Rajendra-chola, 24
Rdjendra-tidnie , 89
Rakkasa Ganga, 33
Rdniachandra-charitra , 35, 93,
117
Rdniachandra-charitrd-purdna,
34
Rama-dhdnya-charitre , 80
Rdrna-kathdvatdra, 35, 94
Ramananda, 76
Ramanujacharya, 42, 75, 76, 77,
_116_
Ramayana, 35 f, 92; Pampa,
34; Kumudendu, 45; Torave,
79; Markandeya, 92; Ananda,
92 ; Ramachandra-charitre,
94
Rdyn-charit-indnas (Hindi), 36
Ranganatha (Avadhilta), 95
Ranna, 30, 32, 116
Rasa-ratndkara , 113
Rashtrakutas (Rattas), 17, 29,
30,69,116
Ratna-Karandaka, 48
Ratnakara-varni, 47, 117
Ratndvali (Sans.), 91
Ratta-kavi, 45
Ratta-mata, Ratta-sutra, 45
Ravishena (Sans.), 44
Reeve, W., Dictionaries, 102
Renuka (Revana), 54
Revana-siddha (Acharya), 54
Revana-siddhesvara-kdvya , 69
Revana-siddhesvara-purdna, 69
Rice, Lewis, 5, 6, 84, 102, 'll2
Rishabha (1st Tirthankara),
20
Rudrabhatta, 77, 116
Q.ABARA-^AI^KARA-
^ VI LAS A, 84
Sabda-manidarpana, 44, 45, 84,
102, 111' 116
Sabda-sniriti , 111
Sabddvatdra, 28
Sddali, 92
Sadguru-ragale , 62
Sahajananda, 82
126 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
Sahasa-Bhivia-vijaya, 32
Saivas (four classes), 49
^aivaganias, 49
^aivism, 26, 49 fif, 76
^akuntald, 100
Saligram, 81
^alivahana, 38
Sallekhana, 21 f, 26
Salva, 47, 113
Sdlva Bharata, 47
Samantabhadra, 26, 41, 114
SamaRan, D., 100
Samaya-partkshe, 37
^ambhulinga hill, 71
Sampadaneya Siddhavira-
charya, 73
Sananda-charitre, 61
Sanderson, Rev. Geo., quoted,
106
SangameSvara, 52 f, 65
Sangatya, 44, 59, 80, 90, 116
^ankaracharya, 24, 75, 76, 114
Sankara-Narayana, 76
Sanskrit, language, 13, 15, 26 ;
authors referred to, 27, 28, 33,
34, 36,49,50, 110, 112, 114 f
Sanskrit works reproduced in
Kanarese, 33, 38, 43, 69, 70,
71, 85, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 100,
101, 112
Sanskrit works by Kanarese
writers, 26, 27, 28, 38, 71, 83,
^ 84, 111, 112, 114, 115
Santala-devi, 22
^anta-linga-de§ika, 94, 117
Santayya, 100
Santhars, 21
gantikirti, 46
^antinatha (SantiSvara), 20,
39 f
Santindtha-purdna, 46
^dnti-purdna, 31
$dnti svara-purdna , 43
Sapta-kdvya, 70
^arami-Basava-ragale , 62
Sarva - darsana ■ sahgraha, 76,
115
Sarvaina-murti, 72 f, 117
Sarvajtiana-padagabi, 72 f
Sasanas, 38, 43
Sataka (a cento or poem of
100-108 stanzas), 34, 47, 60,
62
^atavahana, 38
Satyendra Chola, 84
Satyendra-Chola-kathe , 71
Saundatti Rajas, 44
Sayana,"76, 115, 117
Seringapatam, 73, 91
Shadakshara, 51
Shadakshara-deva, 67, 72, 84,
114, 117
Shakespeare, 100
Shatpadi, 16, 59, 61, 111, 116
Shatsthala, 50, 70
Shatsthala-jndndmrita , 7 1
Shatsthala-vachana , 53, 57
Siddhalihga-yati (Ton t a da
SiddheSvara), 71
Siddha-nanjeSa, 61, 94, 117
Siddharama, 54, 55, 61, 68
Siddhardmn-purana , 54, 60
Siddhesvara-purdna, 71
Silaharas (of Kolhapur), 43
^ila-sanipddana, 62
Singararya, 91
Singi-raja, 67, 117
Sihgi-rdja-purdna, 67
Siragunda inscription, 13
^igumayana, 44, 116
^ivddhikya-purdna, 94
^iva-ganada-ragale, 60
^iva-gltd, 50
^ivakoti (of Kanchi), 26
Siva-tattva-chintdniani , 70
^iva-yoga-pradlpike, 71
^lesha, 106
Sohagina-suggi, 44
Soma (plant), 81
Sotnandtha-charitre , 60
Somanatha (Jagaddala), 37
Somaraja, 64
Somayya (of Puligere) , 60 ; cf.
62
Somesvara-iataka , 62
Sonnalige, 54 61, 68
INDEX
127
Sravana Belgola, 9, 13, 18, 22,
46, 93
Sringara-rasa, 64
Sridharacharya, 33
^ringeri, 114, 115
Srirangam, 76, 91
Sri Vaishnavas, 76
^rivarddhadeva, 27
^rivijaya, 25, 28
^ruta-kevalin
Stevenson, Mrs., quoted, 19, 24
Sthala, 49
Subandhu, 43
^udraka, 30
Suka-saptati, 97
Sukti-sudhdrnava, 45, 47, 116
Sumanobana, 45
Suranga-kavi, 69
Surya, 113
Swatantra SiddhalingeSvara,
58
Swetambaras, 21
Syadvada, 9, 17, 22, 26
T^ADBHAVA, 15, 44
^ Tailapa, 31, 32
Talikota, 69
Taikad, 9, 13, 17, 24, 29, 116
Tamil, 14, 15, 91, 101, 112
Tanjore, 18
Tapatl-parinaya, 100
Tatsama, 15, 44
Telugu, 14, 15, 64, 72, 79, 93, 112
Tengalae, 91
Tennala Ramakrishna, 97
Terakanambi, 46
"Three Gems," 30
Tikas, 100
Timma, 113
Timmanna, 78
Timmarasa, 92
Timmarva, 92
Tipu Sultan, 89, 90, 93
Tirthankaras, 19, 20
Tirumalarya (Tirumalayen-
gar), 90,91, 113, 117
Tirumala-rava, 69
Tirumala Vaidya, 92
Tirupati, 81, 91
Tiruvalluvar, 101
Tiruvayi-mol e , 91
Tontada Siddhegvara, 71, 117
Torave Rdmayana, 79, 117
Totadarya, 113 '
Tribhuvana-tilaka , 69
Triloka-saiaka, 47
Tripadi, 16, 59
Tripura-dahana, 44
Trisashti-lakshana-tnaha-
purdna, 32
Trisashti-purdtanara-charitre,
69
Tuka Ram, 72
Tulasi Das, 36, 77
Tuluva country, 19, 46, 47
Tuiuva language, 93
Tumbuluracharya, 27
T TBHAYA-KAVI-CHAKRA-
^ VARTI, 31,114
Udaya, 28
Udayaditya, 112
Udaydditydla hkdram ,112
Udbhata-kdvya , 64
Udupi, 76, 77, 81, 100, 115
Ujjayini, 43, 97
Ulavi, 53
Ummatur, 51, 69
Uraiyur, 18
Urilinga-peddi, 57
Uttara-kdnda, 92
Uttara Rdmayana, 92
WACHANAS, 56-58, 70, 71
^ Vaishnava Revival, 75 ff
Vaishnava classics, 78, 79, 91, 92
Vaishnava Dasas, 79
Vajranandi, 27
Valmiki, 34
Vanara-dhvaja, 35
Varaha Timmappa Dasa, 81
Vardhamana Mahavira, 19, 20
Vasavadatta, 43
Vastu-kosa. 37, 111, 112
Vemana (Telugu), 72
Vengi, 30, 33, 54
Venkatacharya, B., 101
Venkata Dasa, 81
Venkatapati Raya, 69
128 HISTORY OF KANARESE LITERATURE
Venkatavaradacharya, 100
Venkayarya, 92
Vidyadharas, 34
Vidyaranya (Madhavacharya),
115
Vijaya Dasa , 81
Vijayanagar, 42, 46, 64, 68, 79,
80,83, 97, 115, 117
Vijnanesvara, 114, 116
Vikranidrka-deva-charitra, 114
Vimala, 2_8
Vimala Suri, 36
Vincent Smith, quoted, 19
Viraktas, 70
Virakta Tontadarya, 62, 71
Vira Ballala,_43, 77
Virabhadra-raja, 72
VIra-rajendra, 89
Vlrasaivdinrita-purdna, 69, 72
ViraSaiva Religion, 49 ff
Vira SomeSvara, 44
Vira Vasanta Raya, 56, 68
Viriapaksha, 85
Virupa-raja, 69, 72
Vishalaksha-pandita, 89
Vishnu-pur ana, 17 , 91
Vishnuvardhiana, 34
Visishtadvaita, 90
VisveSvaracharya, 54, 69
Vitthala (Vithoba), 80
Vitthala Dasa, 81
Viveka-chintamani , 71, 117
Vokkaligara Patrike, 101
Vopadeva, 110
Vrishabhendra-vijaya, 53, 84
Vrittdnta Patrike, 101
Vritta-vilasa, 37
Vyasa-raya of Sosile, 80
WARANGAL, 60
Weigle, Rev. G. H., 102
Wilks' History of Mysore, 89
Wodeyars of Mysore and
Ummatiir, 51
Wiirth, Rev., 7, 102
YADAVAS, 45, 60
* Yakshagana, 16, 100
Yasodhara-charitre, 43, 116
Yatis, 20, 34
Ydtrika-sanchara, 101
Yediyur, 71
Yelandiir, 71, 84, 89
Yenur, 19, 47, 93
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